derogatory ne demek / "Хачи хуесосы" ne anlama geliyor? - Rusça hakkında soru | HiNative

Derogatory Ne Demek

derogatory ne demek

A Corpus-Based Study of the Tertiary Level Turkish EFL Learner’s Common Overuse / Underuse of "- ly" Adverbs

Abstract The Return is a 1972 movie directed and co-starred by Türkan Şoray (and Kadir İnanır) is set in a village of Anatolia. The movie is mainly about the problems of women and migration. In 1973, it was given the special award in Moskova Film Festival and it was the mostly watched film of the year in Turkey. One of the reasons of its popularity might stem from the fact that the film gives a voice to the thousand gastarbeiters (who immigrate from Turkey to Germany), whose problems are mostly ignored and neglected in the motion pictures. With this movie, underprivileged groups such as women and working class people had a chance to be seen and recognized in cinema and their problems are acknowledged. In other words, topics like immigration, identity and sense of belonging are scrutinized. Thus, in this study, the women issue, the immigrant5 issue and the identity issue will be explored with reference to the theories of cultural studies theorists by giving examples from the movie, The Return. Key Words: Women, Immigration, Identity, Türkan Şoray, Kadir İnanır, Türk Sineması. Özet: Başrollerini Türkan Şoray ve Kadir İnanır’ın paylaştığı 1972 yapımı Dönüş filmi, Türkiye’de kadın ve göç sorununu ele almaktadır. Türkan Şoray’ın ilk yönetmenlik ürünü olan ve 1973 Moskova Film Festivali’nde özel ödüle layık görülen Dönüş filmi aynı zamanda aynı yıl en çok hasılat elde eden film olmuştur. Filmin bu başarısının altında Türkiye’den Almanya’ya, Avrupa’ya gastarbeiter (misafir işçi) olarak giden binlerce insanın sorunlarına ayna tutması ve o zamana kadar beyazperdede çok önemsenmeyen, göz ardı edilen işçi sınıfının ve kadınların sorunlarına ses vererek, kimlik, göç, göçmenlik, arafta kalma gibi birçok temaya değinmesi önemli bir etken olabilir diye düşünüyoruz. Bu çalışmada, kültür teorisyenlerinin teorilerine değinerek ve Dönüş filmi üzerinden örneklemelerle “kadın, göç ve kimlik sorunu” incelenecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kadın, Göç, Kimlik, Türkan Şoray, Kadir İnanır, Turkish Cinema, Gastarbeiters.

1 Azərbaycan Respublikası Ədliyyə Nazirliyi Mətbu nəşrlərin reyestrinə daxil edilmişdir (Reyestr 3378) AZƏRBAYCAN MİLLİ ELMLƏR AKADEMİYASININ RƏYASƏT HEYƏTİ TÜRKOLOGİYA Beynəlxalq elmi jurnal Международный научный журнал International scientific journal 1970-ci ildən nəşr olunur Издаётся с 1970 года Published since 1970 İldə 4 dəfə çıxır Выходит 4 раза в году Published quarterly 4 OKTYABR-NOYABR-DEKABR BAKI 2017

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5 TÜRKOLOGİYA İÇİNDƏKİLƏR KLASSİK İRS PORTRETLƏR Peter Qolden (ABŞ). Mahmud əl-kaşğaridə Türk dünyası DİLÇİLİK Əhməd Nəhmədov (Türkiyə). Azərbaycan türkcəsində din feilinin tarixi inkişafı üzərinə TARİX VƏ ETNOQRAFİYA Aleksandr Nesterov (Rusiya), Yuliya İvanova (Rusiya). Ağcaqoyunlu qacarlar: XVII əsrin ilk qərinəsində İrəvan bəylərbəyliyi MİFOLOGİYA Zakircan Aminev (Rusiya, Başqırdıstan). Başqırdlarda dağ kultu relikti MÜZAKİRƏ Zümrüd Quluzadə (Azərbaycan). Bir daha Azərbaycan tarixşünaslığının məxəzləri olan Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud dastanı və Abbasqulu ağa Bakıxanovun Gülüstani-İrəm əsəri haqqında TÜRKOLOJİ MƏRKƏZLƏR Momçil Şopov (Bolqarıstan). Bolqar türkologiyasının yolu haqqında REDAKSİYAYA MƏKTUB Redaksiyaya məktub RESENZİYALAR İlham Məmmədzadə (Azərbaycan). Azərbaycan multikulturalizmi (ali məktəblər üçün dərslik) Elçin İbrahimov (Azərbaycan). Mustafa S. Kaçalin. Oğuzların Diliyle Dedem Korkudun Kitabı ELMİ HƏYAT Xronika... 84

6 İÇİNDƏKİLƏR PERSONALİA Hüseyn Cavid Lev Qumilyov İren Məlikoff Elbrus Əzizov NEKROLOQLAR Harid Fedai

7 TÜRKOLOGİYA С О Д Е Р Ж А Н И Е КЛАССИЧЕСКОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ ПОРТРЕТЫ Петер Голден (США). Тюркский мир у Махмуда Кашгари ЯЗЫКОЗНАНИE Ахмет Нахмедов (Турция). Об историческом развитии глагола «din-» в азербайджанском языке ИСТОРИЯ И ЭТНОГРАФИЯ Александр Нестеров (Россия), Юлия Иванова (Россия). Ахча Коюнлу Каджары: Ираванское беглербекство в первой трети XVII века МИФОЛОГИЯ Закиржан Аминев (Россия, Башкортостан). О реликте культа гор у башкир ОБСУЖДЕНИЯ Зумруд Гулузаде (Азербайджан). Ещё раз о дастане «Китаби-Деде Горгуд» и произведении «Гюлистани-Ирэм» Аббаскули ага Бакиханова как источниках по азербайджанской историографии ТЮРКОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ЦЕНТРЫ Момчил Шопов (Болгария). О пути болгарской тюркологии ПИСЬМО В РЕДАКЦИЮ Письмо в редакцию РЕЦЕНЗИИ Ильхам Мамедзаде (Азербайджан). Azərbaycan multikulturalizmi (ali məktəblər üçün dərslik) Эльчин Ибрагимов (Азербайджан). Mustafa S. Kaçalin. Oğuzların Diliyle Dedem Korkudun Kitabı НАУЧНАЯ ЖИЗНЬ Хроника... 84

8 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПЕРСОНАЛИИ Гусейн Джавид Лев Гумилёв Ирен Меликофф Эльбрус Азизов НЕКРОЛОГИ Харид Федаи

9 TÜRKOLOGİYA CONTENTS CLASSICAL HERITAGE PORTRAITS Peter Golden (USA). The Turkıc World in Mahmûd al-kâshgharî LINGUISTICS Ahmet Nahmedov (Turkey). On the Historical Development of Azerbaijani verb din HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY Aleksandr Nesterov (Russia), Yuliya Ivanova (Russia). Ahcha Koyunlu Kacars: the Iravan Beylerbeylik in the First Third of the XVII century MYTHOLOGY Zakirjan Aminev (Russia, Bashkiria). On the Mountain Worship of Bashkir People DISCUSSIONS Zumrud Guluzade (Azerbaijan). Once More on the Epos The Book of Dada Gorgud and the Book Gulustani Irem by Abbasgulu Agha Bakikhanov as the Sources of Azerbaijani Historiography CENTRES OF TURKOLOGY Momchil Shopov (Bulgaria). On the Way of Bulgarian Turkology LETTER TO EDITORIAL OFFICE Letter to Editorial Office REVIEWS Ilham Mammadzade (Azerbaijan). Azərbaycan multikulturalizmi (ali məktəblər üçün dərslik) Elchin Ibrahimov (Azerbaijan). Mustafa S. Kaçalin. Oğuzların Diliyle Dedem Korkudun Kitabı SCIENTIFIC LIFE Chronicle... 84

10 CONTENTS PERSONAL NEWS Hussein Javid Lev Gumilyov Iren Melikoff Elbrus Azizov OBITUARIES Harid Fedai

11 TÜRKOLOGİYA KLASSİK İRS PORTRETLƏR КЛАССИЧЕСКОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ ПОРТРЕТЫ CLASSICAL HERITAGE PORTRAITS PETER GOLDEN (USA) THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ The discussion of ethnicity and the shaping of ethnic identities is much on the minds of medievalists, especially those focusing on Europe of late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages 1. The classical, Graeco-Roman ethnographic literature world in its presentations of the Other, provided paradigms for shaping the images of the tribal peoples that emerged from the Great Völkerwanderung (at first largely Germanic and subsequently Slavic). The Arabo-Muslim geographical traditions played a somewhat similar role in creating a profile for the Turkic peoples that were a presence on the borders of the newly expanding Arabian Caliphate from the mid-7 th century onwards 2. The category of Turk as an ethnic generic for a gens 3 that was sub- USA, Prof.Dr., [email protected] 1 Cf. Geary 2002; Gillet 2002; Garipzanov et al. 2008; Smith The discussion has also been underway in recent studies of the Ancient World, see Gruen On the Turk theme, see Miquel , II, For Arabo-Muslim views of the European Other, see Hermes Byzantine Greek ἔθνος (pl. ἔθνη) nation, people and γένος race, stock kin (Liddell/Scott 1996, 344; 480) more or less matched Medieval Latin gens, gentes, natio, nationes. The ongoing debate on gens has focused on whether these communities, often polyethnic in origin, were primordial or constructed to varying degrees by the literary traditions of those observing them. The volumes edited by Gillet (2002) and Garipzanov, Geary and Urbańczyk provide excellent overviews of the question (Garipzanov et al. 2008). The constructionists appear to be prevailing, but the debate is ongoing and some are recognizing elements of their opponents arguments. Connected with gens is the modern concept of the ethnie (a group with shared ancestry myths, histories and cultures [ ] a specific territory and a sense of solidarity, see Smith 1986, the sources of these categories may be primordialist, constructionist or often some combination of the two). A specific territory among nomads was not as central a criterion to them as the territories of pastoralist groupings could and did change. Muslim authors, early on, however, associated them broadly with territories. Thus, Ibn Khurdâdhbih (Ibn Khurdâdhbih/de Goeje 1889, 31) writes of the buldân al-atrâk countries of the Turks. Kâshgharî, who was certainly thinking along lines that Graeco-Roman authors writing about gentes et al. would find familiar, rendered these notions in Arabic but not consistently as qaum (Lane , I/8, 2996, a people, or body of persons composing a community [ ] kinsfolk [ ] tribe ; Kazimirski 1860, II, 840, Peuplade, tribu, peuple ; Dozy 1968, II, 432, certain nombre de personnes réunies, qui sont du même rang, groupe ; Polosin 1995, 408, liudi, plemia, sorodichi ; Sarı 1980, 1271, kavim, topluluk, millet, eş dost ) and in Old Turkic as boδun/boyun (Dankoff 2008d, 59, and see below). Γένος was borrowed into Arabic: jins kind, sort, variety, species [ ] race; nation (Wehr/Cowan 1994, 167; Polosin 1995, 95, rod, sort, kategoriia ; Lane , I/2, 470, genus, kind, or generical class, comprising under it several species ) and is used largely to describe a variety or sort of a thing or grouping. Thus, Ibn Khurdâdhbih (Ibn Khurdâdhbih/de Goeje 1889, 154) notes the Rûs as a jins min aṣ-ṣaqâliba. Ibn Rusta (Ibn Rusta/de Goeje 1892, 142) calls the Pre-Conquest Hungarians (Magyars, Majghariyya) a jins min al-turk. Often mistranslated as tribe,

12 12 PETER GOLDEN divided into various tribal entities became a commonplace in the Arabo-Irano- Muslim historical and geographical literature that emerged in the 9th and 10th centuries. Although these tribal groupings were not static, their names often persevered for long periods of time. The Arabic macro-ethnonym Turk, from the ethno- and politonym Türk, had a history that antedated the Turko-Islamic encounter by more than a century and an independent existence that continued well after the encounter (Golden 2001; 2008/2009). The inculcation of a sense of Türk -ness was certainly one of the functions of the Orkhon inscriptions (see below) 4. An early example of the Turko-Muslim cultural, intellectual and ideological encounter can be found in the Dîwân Lughât at-turk (Compendium of Turkic Dialects) of Maḥmûd al- Kâshgharî, a treasure trove of information and one of our most important sources about the Turkic-speaking world of the transformative 11th century 5. The author, a scion, it has been argued, of the Qarakhanid ruling house ( ) was born perhaps ca. 1029/1038 and died probably in the last quarter of the 11th century 6. Qarakhanid is a modern scholarly convention, the Ilek Khans (< Turk. elig/ilig or ellig ruler, king ; < el realm ; Clauson 1972, ) of an earlier generation of scholars. It is based on the Qarakhanid practice of using qara (lit. black, but also denoting north and great, chief, leading, hence Qarakhan Great King of the Northlands ) as a name for the Khâqânî kings (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 265, buğra qara χâqân ; Pritsak 1954, ; jins really renders kind or sort, i.e. a kind/variety of the Turks (used here to denote Central Eurasian nomads) and those sharing a similar lifestyle and appearance. Ṣaqâliba (a term most often referring to Slavs ) could also be broader, sometimes indicating peoples of northeastern Europe in general. Ibn Faḍlân (Ibn Faḍlân/Togan 1939, [Arabic] 2, [German] 1 2 [commentary] ), calls the Volga Bulğar ruler malik aṣ-ṣaqâliba, king of the Ṣaqlabs,i.e. a ruler in the Middle Volga over Turkic, Finnic and other populations. On the complexity of this generic, Ṣaqâliba, see Mishin 2002 and Meouak 2004, esp On the role of myths, especially genealogies, belief systems, ideologies in the development of nomadic states, see Kürsat-Ahlers 1996, References will be to the Dankoff edition and English translation (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , which notes the ms. pages as well) with mention made of the Auézova (Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005) and Rustamov (Kâshgharî/ Kormushin 2010) editions (with Russian translations) only when there are important divergences in the readings. I have checked all references with the facsimile edition of the ms. (Kaşgarlı 1941). These are noted when needed. The Auézova translation gives only the transliteration of the Turkic terms, but does not reconstruct their Turkic pronunciation. All Turkic forms are given here in a unified transcription system (e.g., δ for ḏ/dh, ğ for γ, ı for ï, etc. Dankoff does not distinguish between ı and i. Where justifiable, on the basis of other Middle Turkic text editions, I have used ı for i). 6 Our information on his life comes solely from his Dîwân Lughât al-turk, see Pritsak 1953a; Dankoff (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 4) is a trailblazer in modern Kâshgharî studies, see his excellent essays collected in Dankoff 2008a; Genç 1997, 1 2, and discussion by Kormushin in his introduction to the Russian edition of the Dîwân (Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 28 30). He was probably a descendant of Hârûn (al-ḥasan) b. Sulaymân Qılıč Buğra Khan, a grandson of Satuq Buğra Khan (d. 955), the founder of the dynasty. Hârûn/al- Ḥasan took Bukhara from the Sâmânids in 992. His line later came to be associated with the Eastern Qarakhanids. Genç 1997, 1 6, notes that Kâshgharî knew much about Qarakhanid regal traditions and could not have come from an ordinary family, but urges caution in attributing to him membership in the royal house. Kâshgharî s burial site in Opal (cf. Kaşgarlı 1941, 49; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 112, b u l [n]ame of one of our villages ), some 45 km west of Kashghar (Chin. Kashi 喀什 ), was discovered in 1981 (see Barat 1994, 78). 7 Tenishev/Dybo 2006, 524, suggest *yel as the earliest form in Turkic, surviving in Chuvash yal (see also Fedotov 1996, II, , obshchestvo, liudi, narod ) and Uzbek dialect yel, cf. Khazar, yilig/yeleχ (< yeleǧ), the lower ranking king, noted in 10th century Byzantine and Muslim sources (Golden 2005b, ).

13 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ ). By the 1040s, following a period of internal strife, the Qarakhanids had effectively split into eastern (Eastern Turkistan/Xinjiang) and western (Western Turkistan) Qaghanates, with Farghâna alternately falling under the jurisdiction of one or the other (Pritsak 1953b, 34 37; Necef 2005, 325 pp.). Such an east-west division was not unknown in earlier Turkic history (e.g., the Eastern and Western Türk Empire). Kâshgharî was probably born in Kâshghar 8, as his nisba implies (Genç 1997, 2), but had ties to the city of Barsghan/Barskhân, associated with his father, Ḥusayn b. Muḥammad Čağrı Tegin, who probably ruled it at some point. Kâshghar was one of the centers of the Eastern Qaghanate, second to Balasaghun 9. Barsghan was a town with earlier Qarluq and Uyghur associations on the shores of the Issyk Kul (İsig Köl in Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 217) in modern Kyrgyzstan, not far from Kâshghar 10. He makes a number of pointed comments about his ancestral town and its populace, including the remark that they are the worst of people (bodun yawuzı Barsğân; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 331; II, 217). This is left without further explanatory remarks, as are other such characterizations, pointing, perhaps, to political difficulties his father faced in that city. Kâshgharî provides many brief notices on places that are close to Barsghan, an area with which he was obviously intimately familiar, far more so than with other, in particular more westerly parts of the Turkic world 11. The city of Barsghan, despite fanciful tales of its origin, was probably associated with a Turkic people of that name noted already in the 10th century by al- Mas ûdî (al- Mas ûdî/pellat , I, 155). It was in Chigil territory (Köprülü 1966, ; Hunkan , 19). At some, undated point in his career, probably after leaving Kâshghar, Kâshgharî was associated for a time (ṣâḥabtuhu ḥinâtan) with an emir named Qumuq. We know nothing further about this figure or the nature of Kâshgharî s connection with him Also called Ordukend in Qarakhanid usage, see Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, Now associated with the ruins at Burana, south of Tokmak. On the difficulties in locating it precisely, see Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk 1978, It appears under a variety of names: Balasaghun, Quz Ulush and Quz Ordu. It may have earlier been a Qarluq holding (Karaev 1983, 14). Quz means the northern side of a mountain seldom reached by the sun (Clauson 1972, 680; see also Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 260; II, 211). Uluš denoted village in the Chigil dialect, but city in Arghu dialect and in Balasaghun itself (Kâšγarî/ Dankoff , I, 105). 10 Isıq Köl in Modern Qırghız. İsig is the Old Turkic form (Clauson 1972, 246). The Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, 82, and Minorsky 1970, 98, report that Barsghan s prince (dihqân) was a Qarluq. The populace, however, was devoted to the Toghuzghuz, i.e. the Uyghurs. According to Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 364 (where he notes it as the city from which came the father of Maḥmûd ), the town was named after its founder, a son of Afrâsiyâb, the legendary lord of Tûrân (hence its close associations with Qarakhanid royalty), but cites another legend that derived its name from a groom who tended the horses of the Uyghur ruler. The Pandnâma written by Abu l-fatḥ Bustî (d. ca. 1009/1011), a vezir of Sebüktegin, the true founder of the Ghaznavid state, father of Maḥmûd of Ghazna, claims that Sebüktegin came from that same town, see Hunkan 2005, 7; 2007, Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 301; II, 164; 211; 217; 265; 275; Genç 1997, 4; Hunkan , Kaşgarlı 1941, 193; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 294. Although he bears a typically apotropaic pagan Turkic name (qumuq means dung, in particular horse dung ), see Clauson 1972, 627, who, however, reads the name as Qomuq. Although Kâšγarî ( , I, 294; II, 322) does specifically associate this non-islamic anthroponym with the noun for dung, Qumuq was most probably a Muslim. Genç 1997, 3, suggests that he was in Qumuq s entourage/comitatus, although our text only indicates that he associated with him (Kaşgarlı 1941, 193; ṣâḥaba can also mean accompany, keep company ) and does not specify in what capacity.

14 14 PETER GOLDEN Kâshgharî appears to have acquired a thorough education that began with his mother Bübi Rabiya, the well-educated daughter of Khoja Sayf ad-dîn, and continued in Bukhara, Iran, and Iraq. He shows a full command of Arabic and Persian. He was, perhaps, already an old man, when he wrote the Dîwân Luġât at-turk, in Arabic, starting in 464/1072 and most probably completing it in 469/1077 in Baghdad 13. He had already written another book devoted to Turkic grammar, but it has not yet been discovered (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 81) 14. Perhaps there were plans for yet other works on the Turkic language and Turkic-speaking peoples we do not know. The Dîwân contains some 7500 entries (Genç 1997, 11). Kâshgharî may have been forced to leave his homeland due to internal strife within the Qarakhanid ruling house in /1056/7 1057/8. What role these political events played in shaping the Dîwân remains a matter of conjecture 15. Later local (East Turkistanian) documents indicate his return to his native land where he is said to have died in 477/ , perhaps at a very old age (97 years) 16. For historians, he is an insider, someone coming from the Turkic world and acquainted with its complex array of nomadic, seminomadic and sedentarizing peoples, bilingual and Turkicizing populations. While distinguishing Turks and non-turks, his presentation of the former is not without ambiguities. TÜRK AND TURK Arabic Turk (pl. Atrâk) stems from the ethnonym Türk 17 borne by the founding tribal union (ultimately composed of thirty tribes; Dobrovits 2004) of the Türk Empire (Eastern Qaghanate: , /3; Western Qaghanate: , 690s 766). Although it had lost its dominant political position after the mid-8th century, the ethnonym Türk, within the Turkic-speaking world, was occasionally retained 13 Barat 1994, 81, calculates that he was 82 when he began the composition of the Dîwân. See Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 1; 7; 9 10; 23 25; for full discussion by Dankoff of the dating and of the manuscript s journeys, see also Genç 1997, 12 17, who places the beginning of its writing in 464/1072 and its completion in 466/1074. The original work, begun during the reign of the Abbâsid Caliph al-qâ im (r / ), was completed several years later (the precise dates are in dispute because of inconsistencies in the work itself, see the most recent discussion by Rustamov in Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 32 35). It was then reviewed and revised perhaps four times and was ultimately dedicated to the Abbâsid Caliph al-muqtadî (r / ). The unique manuscript is now in the Fatih Millet Genel Kütüphanesi in Istanbul. It is a copy made probably in Mamlûk Damascus in 664/1266 from the autograph (probably brought from Baghdad after the Mongol conquest in 1258) and ultimately transferred to Cairo whence it was taken to Istanbul following the Ottoman conquest (1517). See also discussion by Genç 1997 noted above and Rustamov (Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 35 38) in which he questions whether the work was actually written in Baghdad (or perhaps in Nishapur) and whether it reached the Caliphal library, but rather was stalled in some Oghuz, i.e. Seljukid center. This scenario, however, would make its transmission to the Mamlûk realm even more complicated. Rustamov (Kâshgharî/ Kormushin 2010, 38) agrees that the copy was made in a Qıpchaq environment and this would have been the Mamlûk state. 14 This was the Kitâb Jawâhir an-naḥw fî lughât at-turk ( The Gems of Grammar of the Turkic Dialects ) perhaps aimed at teaching Turkic to the Arabic-reading world (as Genç 1997, 9, suggests). 15 See discussion by Kormushin in Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 30 32, with suggestions on his education and travels. Genç 1997, 5, among others, questions this sce nario. 16 Kormushin in Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 31; Barat 1994 (who places his birth in 380/990 91). 17 The meaning and etymology of this ethnonym, which, ultimately, may not be Turkic, remain contested, see discussion in Róna-Tas/Berta 2011, II, (sub török).

15 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 15 after their political collapse as a linguistic-cultural denomination 18. The Turkic language of the Türk and Uyghur inscriptions was based on an accepted literary koine, although some dialect features (Türk, Uyghur/Toquz Oghuz, Qırghız, and perhaps Türgesh) are not absent (Kormuşin 2010, 144). Turk appears in Muslim sources in more am- biguous ways, either reflecting what had become a generic employed by Muslim historians and geographers to denote Turkic (and sometimes non-turkic)- speaking peoples of the Eurasian steppes, a generic adopted by Islamized Turks or used in the older sense of belonging to or continuity with the Türk-Ashina tradition 19. Kâshgharî, in his comments on the term Türk says that this form is used as a singular and plural, i.e. as a collective. He does not get more specific than that. Although he makes frequent references to Turk and Atrâk, he cites Türk only several times in his Turkic passages and definitions, once geographically: Türk name of a city in the country of the Turks and twice as an ethnonym: Türk boδun ( tribes of the Turks ) and Türk süsi ( the troops of the Turks ) 20 in all instances without explaining the circumstances. It seems unlikely that he was using it here in the sense of all the Turkic peoples, as they were already in his time divided by religions and often at war with one another. Kâshgharî does cite the interesting colloquy in which in answer to the question: kim sän who are you? The person addressed answers Türk män I am a Turk (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 274). The context in which such a question might be asked and answered in Turkic is not explained. He appears to waver in his usage, often employing Turk to denote his only Qarakhanids, i.e. Türks and at other times to encompass Turkic-speakers in general. As noted, it was the Islamic world that picked up this term, Turk, and applied it as a generic marker for Eurasian steppe peoples (Bartol d 1968a, 39 40; 1968c, 584; Golden 2001) 21. Muslim geographers, as early as Ibn Khurdâdhbih, refer to the buldân al-atrâk and bilâd al-turk ( countries of the Turks ), extending to the borders of Ṣîn and al-tubbat (i.e., Tibet; Ibn Khurdâdhbih/de Goeje 1889, 31) 22. Linguistically, they were seen as a unit. Al-Iṣṭakhrî, writing in the early 930s 18 On ethnonyms as renewable, sometimes situational and not always stable elements, see Pohl 1991, 39 49; Janhunen 1996, 24 25; Geary 2002, Hunkan 2005, 5 12, concludes that it was the Turkic elite in the Turkic Qaghanate that was making itself felt in the Islamic world that used this ethnonym. 20 Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, Cf. also Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 378, ol mäni türklädi He considered me a Turk. 21 Kormuşin (2010) suggests that Türk was used in the 8th century Türk and Uyghur runic inscriptions in both a narrow ethnic sense (i.e., the Türks proper) and a broader political sense (i.e., the peoples of the Türk Qaghanate), because the language of the inscriptions was a koine, a synthetic literary language which confused/conflated the two. The language, which Kâshgharî calls Turk is based not on the literary, but on the daily spoken language and this he often contrasts with the language of the Oghuz-Türkmen. An example, I would argue, of his putting some distance between his Turks and the now powerful, Seljukid Oghuz. 22 The name may also be rendered as Ibn Khurradâdhbih. The dating of his Kitâb al-masâlik wa l-mamâlik, in one or two redactions, remains a matter of debate; see Krachkovskii , IV, Recently E. van Donzel and A. Schmidt, who have edited and published what survives of the account of the journey of Sallâm the Interpreter (which he dictated to Ibn Khurdâdhbih), sent by the Caliph al-wâthiq ( ) to the northlands of Eurasia, argue that there was one edition composed between and and then a second, abbreviated version extracted from that

16 16 PETER GOLDEN and using some earlier sources, says, the Turks, all of them, such as the Tughuzghuzz [Toquz Oghuz], Khîrkhîz [Qırghız 23 ], the Kîmâk [Kimek/Kimäk], the Ghuzz [Oghuz] and the Kharlukh [Qarluq], have one [common] language and understand one another (Al-Iṣṭakhrî/de Goeje 1870, 9), a view retained in Muslim geographies of the Seljuk era. Thus, Muḥammad b. Maḥmûd Ṭûsî (writing ca. 1180) 24, referring to Turkistân ( the land of the Turks ) and the Toquz Oghuz, says that the Qarluq, Kimek (Kimäk), Oghuz, Pecheneg, Qıpchaq and Qırghız have one language (zabân-i îshân yakî ast; Ṭûsî/Sutûdah 1996, 427). Although this source comes from the latter stage of the Great Seljuk Empire, its mention of the Kimek clearly shows that it stems from the early 11th century at the latest, if not much earlier. Some early Qarakhanid rulers employed Turk in their coinage (e.g., the coin minted in Farghâna in 381/991 2, of Buğra Khan Abu Mûsâ, termed here Turk Khâqân), as well as some issues and inscriptions dated to Kâshgharî s lifetime 25. Was this simply following the Muslim generic tradition or did this point to a consciousness of Türk roots? Kâshgharî uses Turk, but says nothing about the earlier Ashina Türks. The Ötükän, the sacred homeland of the Türk Empire is reduced to a vague geographical reference (see below). Similarly, the powerful and extensive empire of the Khazars (of Türk origin, ca. 650 ca ) is also a misvocalized, unspecified toponym: Khuzâr name of a place (mawḍʻi) in the country of the Turks (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 312). Of course, memory of this non-muslim past may have faded or been completely lost, although such a memory loss might be situational and understandable at least when addressing a Muslim, Middle Eastern audience (Golden in press). His Qarakhanid qaghans, it has been argued, may have considered themselves the political heirs and possibly the descendants of the Türk Ashina royal house. Their complex system of succession to what became a dual qaghanate, with eastern and western branches, builds on and makes reference to earlier Türk and Toquz Oghuz/Uyghur traditions 26. Kâshgharî does not emphasize these exotic elements to his Arabic-reading audience. Drawing attention to Turkic origins outside the traditional Irano-Arabo- Muslim world and genealogical traditions was not one of his goals. was made in 885/886 (van Donzel/Schmidt 2010, [text of Sallâm]; ). See also Marwazî/Minorsky 1942, 6 7; Zimonyi 1990, 17 18; 2005, 19 20; Bosworth In the Old Turkic of the Türk, Uyghur and Qırghız in- scriptions, the name is given as Qırqız (User 2010, 160; Kormushin 2008, 76 77) probably from Old Turk. qır gray (horse color) + suffix -q(x)r/ğ(x)r ~ k(x)z/g(x)z, see Kempf 2010/2011, 192; See Krachkovskiĭ , IV, , on Aḥmad Ṭûsî/Muḥammad b. Maḥmûd b. Aḥmad Ṭûsî writing in the time of the Seljuk Toğrul II ( / ). 25 Hunkan (2005, 6 7; 9) suggests that use of this ethnonym was for propaganda purposes, letting the now subject Muslim territories know who their new masters were. 26 Pritsak 1951, ; 1954, 22 24; 1955, 259; Golden 1990, ; Tryjarski 1993, 8 9; Necef 2005, 61 pp.; Köprülü 1966, Kliashtornyi and Sultanov give primacy to the Qarluqs and affiliated groupings of Yaghma and Chigil in the question of the origins of the Qarakhanid dynasty (Kliashtornyi/Sultanov 2009, 136). In contrast, Genç (1981, 36 37; ; 1997, 20) derives their ruling house from the Yaghma rulers who had Toquz Oghuz affiliations (the Uyghurs were the dominant group among the latter). Kochnev assigns them (ادكشEgδiš * roots, a tribal grouping that had been part of the Western Türk and then Qarluq unions (Kochnev 1996, ).

17 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 17 Kâshgharî depicts himself as omniscient in matters Turkic. At the very beginning of his work, he remarks that he has traveled extensively throughout [ the] cities and steppes of the Turks and learned their dialects and rhymes: those of the Turks, the Turkmân-Oghuz, the Čigil, the Yağma and the Qırqız (Kaşgarlı 1941, 3; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 70). A close reading of the Dîwân suggests, however, that his direct knowledge came from the region bounded by Syr Darya, Upper Ili and Kâshghar regions 27, i.e. the Qarakhanid world and its Oghuz-Seljuk neighber. A number of scholars have pointed to the Chigil or Khâqânî Chigil dialect, probably Kâshgharî s native tongue, which preserved many phonetic features of Old Türk-Uyghur speech (retaining, e.g., interdental δ which became z and y in other dialects), as the norm for his Turkî. Others view Khâqâniyya Qarluq (Köprülü 1966, and note 20), or more probably a mix of Qarluq, Chigil and other related eastern dialects 28, as his control language. All of these, or rather their decendants, would today be classified as Southeastern or Turkî Turkic (presently represented by Uzbek and modern Uyghur). The Chigil, in any event, were at this time one of the constituent elements of the Qarluqs (see below). These eastern dialects, the descendants of the same dialect groupings that produced classical Türk and Uyghur Turkic, were dominant from Kâshghar to modern Uzbekistan (Köprülü 1966, 17). The Oghuz and Qıpchaqs were west and northwest of them. The picture is complicated, the Chigil are mentioned in three geographic areas (see below), and specifically Chigil dialect words presumably distinct from his literary Turkî are recorded. Kâshgharî himself comments that the most correct Turkic is that of Yağma and Tuχsi, along the Ili, Irtysh, Yamâr (see below) and Volga (Ätil) rivers, as far as the country of Uighur. The most elegant speech, of course was that of the Qarakhanid rulers and those that associate with them 29. Doerfer maintained, correctly in my view, that Kâshgharî did not know all the Turkic dialects equally well. Kâshgharî cites Oghuz variants most frequently (some 250 terms). Others receive far less attention, e.g., Qıpchaq (some 51 examples), Chigil (47 examples), Arğu (46 examples) and Yaghma (24 examples) and Känčäk (15 examples) 30, a dialect spoken by Turkicized Saka speakers (see below). Several dialects are represented by only a few examples (Yabaqu). 27 Genç 1997, 10, makes this point and highlights his familiarity with the settled Turkic populations who, in his view constituted the majority in this region, rather with than nomadic Turkic peoples. 28 Kormushin in Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, (Chigil the living speech of the author s native tribe). Nasilov 2011, , argues that the Turkic language of the Dîwân was a literary supra-dialect based on Qarluq, Chigil, Tukhsi, and Yaghma. 29 Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 50. See Dankoff in Kâšγarî/Dankoff , 84; Kormuşin 2010, 145, and his remarks in Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, Chigil Turkic, Kâshgharî appears to suggest, according to Kormushin, is the continuation of the Ötüken-Oghuz-Uyghur branch. Similarly, Kâshgharî observes, every dotted δal in the speech of Chigil and other Turks is changed to zây by some of the Qifčâq, Yemǟk, Suvâr, Bulğâr and those [in the areas] stretching to Rûs and Rûm. Hence, the Turks say aδaq foot while the others noted above say azaq or ayaq (in Yaghma, Tukhsi, Qifchâq, Yabâqu, Tatâr, Qây, Chömül, and Oghuz); see Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 85. The Chigil played a prominent role in the Qarakhanid state (Tryjarski 1993, 290). 30 See Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, , for a complete listing; Nasilov 2011, 257. Doerfer 1987, 106, has 53 Oghuz, 13 Qıpchaq, 9 Arghu and 7 Yaghma examples.

18 18 PETER GOLDEN THE CHIGIL, TUKHSI, AND YAGHMA The Chigil (Chin. 處月 Chuyue, MC tśhjwo ŋjwɐt; Schuessler 2009, 49 [ a]; 241 [22-8a]) are noted among the tribes conquered by the Türks as they expanded to form the Western Türk realm. They were perhaps in Eastern Turkistan, and were led by a tarqan (Chavannes 1941, 21; 31 note 3176; note 3; Liu 1958, I, 245; II, 668; 674; Pan 1997, 195; Maliavkin 1989, 175 and 251, who comments that they are first noted in Chinese sources s.a. 635 when they sent an embassy to the Tang court. He also expresses uncertainty about the Chuye = Chigil identification and places them on the Kunges River, part of the Ili River system). Subsequently, they are depicted as divided into three units and neighbors, along with the Tukhsi (Tuχsı, Tuχs?) to their south and east 31, of the Qarluqs in the Issyk Kul region and on the Ili River. The Issyk Kul separated them from the Toquz Oghuz (i.e. Uyghurs and related groups). In the 9th century, Qarluq lands, according to the Ḥudûd al- Âlam (372/982) touched on Tibet, the Yaghma and Toquz Oghuz (Uyghur) lands to the east and south and the Oghuz lands in Transoxiana. The Ḥudûd includes Barskhan within Qarluq territory (Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, 81 83; Minorsky 1970, 97 98; ) 32. Whether the Chigil and Tukhsi were part of the original core of the Üč Qarluq ( Three Qarluq [tribes] ) or simply at some point had become units of them remains a contested issue 33. It is most likely that they were brought into the Qarluq confederations between 745 and 766. Later Muslim authors, such as Marwazî, affirm that the Chigil constituted a unit of three clans (or sub-tribes?), which were within the nine divisions (firq) of the Qarluqs (Marwazî/Minorsky 1942, [Arabic] 19; [English] 31). Kâshgharî divides the Chigil geographically into three groups, one in Qayas, along the Ili River, alongside the Yaghma and Tukhsi, beyond Barsghan, another near Ṭarâz and a third in a group of villages in Kâšghar 34. Whether this corresponded to their politico-social divisions is unclear. By the 9th century, according to Kliash- 31 See the Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, 83 84; Minorsky 1970, 98 99; (with their centre on the northern bank of the Chu ). Suyâb in the Chu River valley, today Tokmak, was their commercial center (Nasilov 2011, 255), earlier a Western Türk center. Kâšγarî/ Dankoff , I, 320, in his definition of the Tukhsi comments, a tribe (jîl) of the Turks in Qayâs, he adds Tuχsi Čigil. Qayâs (II, 238) he terms the name of the country of Tuχsi and Čigil. Elsewhere (II, 185) he notes a shared custom of the Tukhsi, Chigil and Yaghma who take one out of twenty of the sheep of every visiting merchant/guest. 32 Genç 1997, 33 34, locates them south of Issyk Kul extending to Isbîjâb. 33 See remarks of Ecsedy 1980, 35, and discussion in Maliavkin 1989, ; Necef 2005, (who views the Tukhsi as one of the core elements of the Qarluq union). Necef s attempt to make the *Twnis/Twlis Mountain whence the Qarluqs migrated westward into the Buz Dağ [Muz Dağ] of the Dede Qorqud tales, is rather forced as Marwazî clearly says it is the Golden Mountain (jabal al-dhahab), the name of the Altay (cf. Chin. 金山 Jinshan Golden Mountain ), and Altay/Altan etc. Necef 2005, 92 94, connects the Chigil with the 鐵勒 Tiele, i.e. Toquz Oghuz tribe 思結 Sijie EMC (Early Middle Chinese, ca. 601 CE; see Abbreviations and Wilkinson 2000, 21 28, for dating), sɨ/si kɛt LMC (Late Middle Chinese, 7th 8th centuries; see Abbreviations) sẓ kjiat, Pulleyblank (1991, 291; 154; 1956, 39) suggests the (unlikely) ethnonym *Sikär. Necef s contention that the Chigil were early known under the name of İzgil in the Orkhon inscriptions and after their defeat by the Eastern Türks came westward, forming part of the 弩失畢 Nushibi grouping of the On Oq/Western Türks, is not supported by the names of these tribes known only in Chinese transcription; see Beckwith 1987, 210, and his reconstructions of the names of the Nushibi tribes. 34 Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 125; 301; II, 238; Minorsky 1970, ; Necef 2005,

19 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 19 tornyi s reconstruction (Kliashtornyi/Sultanov 2009, ), it is likely that the Chigil and Yaghma constituted the core of the dominant tribes under the emerging Qarakhanid house of Qarluq origin. The Eastern Qarakhanid qaghans who bore the title Arslan Qara Qağan, with their centers in Kâshghar and Balasaghun, in his view, stemmed from the Chigil. The Western qaghans, the Buğra Qara Qağans, with their centers in initially in Ṭarâz and then Samarqand, had Yaghma affiliations. There was a long history of enmity between the Chigil and the Oghuz, which Kâshgharî attributes to conflicts that arose when Dhu l-qarnayn built a fort in the land of Arghu, bordering on Oghuz territories (Necef 2005, 62 63; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 301). The story is obviously legend, including a Persian-derived name for the Chigil that Dhu l-qarnayn bestowed upon them (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 301) asking: în čigil ast (in či gil ast what is this mud )? Such etymologies, often Persian-derived and bestowed by Dhu l-qarnayn are typical of the Dîwân. In a similar fashion, the cycle of Oghuz Khan tales attributes the creation of peoples and ethnonyms to Oghuz Khan, but in this case the etymologies are in Turkic. Among the Oghuz, Chigil appears to have become a term to designate the mass of Turkic peoples to their east. According to the Mujmal al-tawârîkh (ca. 1126; Mujmal al- Tawârîkh/Bahâr 1939, 421), their ruler bore the title tügsin 35. The Chigil are mentioned in the Qutaδğu Bilig, in the section on associating with stockbreeders (igdiščiler), as the biligsiz Čigil lit. ignorant Chigil (Kutadgu Bilig/Arat 1979, 447 line 4448) 36, but understood here as a generic for ignorant and rude/despicable persons. There are no clues as to why the Chigil name had become so closely associated with these negative characteristics, especially in light of their politico-military importance in the Qarakhanid realm. According to the Ḥudûd al- Âlam, the Tukhsi/Tukhsı or Tukhs (or Tokhsi etc.) consisted of two subgroupings 37 and lived west of the Chigil and north of the Qarluq. They were nomads, but several towns are associated with them including Sûyâb (now the ruins at Ak Beshim, near Tokmak in Kyrgyzstan) that had been a center of the West Türk realm (Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk 1978, ; Nasilov 2011, 255). They are not noted in earlier listings of the On Oq/Western Türk tribes. Minorsky considered them as deriving from the Türgesh, i.e. a powerful subgroup- ing and in the early 8th century that dominated the Western Türks, but we have no firm evidence for this 38. As noted above, their Turkic differed slightly from that of the Chigil in that Old Turkic δ, preserved in Chigil, became y in Tukhsi and other dialects (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 85). 35 Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, (title of a commoner in the third rank from the king?); Clauson 1972, 487 (possibly of Chinese origin); Hunkan 2007, basınğan bolurlar biligsiz čigil. Arat (in Yusuf Hass Hacib/Arat 1974, 322) renders the phrase as câhil ve haşin insanlar ( ignorant and rude persons ) and Dankoff (in Yûsuf Khâṣṣ Ḥâjib/Dankoff 1983, 184; 185): despicable and ignorant bumpkins. 37 Text: qaum: Kazimirski 1860, II, 840, Peuplade, tribu, peuple ; Polosin 1995, 408, liudi, plemia, sorodichi. 38 Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, 84; Minorsky 1970, 99; see also Miquel , II, 211. The future Ghaznavid ruler, Sebüktegin, spent some time in his youth as a captive among them (Hunkan 2007, 101).

20 20 PETER GOLDEN The Qarluqs formed one of the core elements of the Qarakhanid state. Indeed, a number of scholars consider them, or at least their ruling house, the founders of that realm. They had entered the Western Türk lands ca. 745, having fled their erstwhile allies, the Uyghurs, with whom they had toppled the Ashina Türks and Basmıl ( ). By 766, under their Yabğu, they had supplanted the fading Western Türks as masters in the old On Oq core lands. The Uyghur-Tibetan account of the northern peoples, written in the latter half of the 8th century, notes the events of and describes them as fighting the Du rgyas (Türgesh) and Ta zhig (Tajik/Tâzik, i.e. the Muslims; see Venturi 2008, 5 8; 28 30). For a time, they appear to have been heirs of the Qaghanal mantle of the Western Türks (Golden 1992, ; Necef 2005, 62 71). By Kâshgharî s era, important elements of them had become Muslim, a process that had been going on for some time. Kâshgharî comments that they, like the Islamized elements among the Oghuz, were also called Türkmen (Kâšġarî , I, 353; II, 100), a term that had become associated with Islamized Qarluqs and Oghuz. The Yaghma were another important tribal union (of some 1700 tribes, according to the Ḥudûd a doubtful figure; Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, 78 79; Minorsky 1970, 95 96), whose role in the shaping of the Qarakhanid state (see above) remains unclear. They stemmed from the Toquz Oghuz union and had migrated westward after 840 (the collapse of the Uyghur Empire, although the Turfan Uyghur state may have continued to dominate them into the latter part of the 10th century). Their ruler, who in the Türk era had borne the title tutuq and later the title Boğra Khan, one of the titles associated with the Qarakhanid system of rulership, was said to descend from the Toquz Oghuz royal house. In the pre- Qarakhanid era, they were in northwestern Eastern Turkistan/Xinjiang, on the borders of Kâshghar and their lands extended north of there and between the Uyghurs and Qarluqs 39. Kâshgharî records the city of Tartuq as in their lands and also calls them Qara Yağma (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 350; II, 165). THE OGHUZ Dialect variants are indicated in about 10 % of the Dîwân s citations and the most frequent juxtapositions tend to be Turk vs. Oghuz 40. Indeed, Kâshgharî comments that between the Khâqâni Turks (i.e. the Qarakhanids) and the Turkmân- Oghuz [ ] there is an absolute and consistent dialectal cleavage (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 75 76). These Oghuz are not the Toquz Oghuz (the 九姓 Jiu Xing Nine Surnames 41 ) of the Chinese sources who figure so importantly in the history of the Türk state and as the tribal union from which the Uyghurs derived and with whom they fought after their assumption of the Qaghanate 42. The Oghuz here are linguistically 39 Hamilton 1955, 94 95; 160; Golden 1992, 201; Necef 2005, See comments of Kormushin in Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, Chin. 姓 xing surname, clan semantically derives from a word associated with birth, what is inborn (Schuessler 2007, 541) and is a precise rendering in all respects of the Turkic Oğur~Oghuz; see Golden Pulleyblank 1956, 35 42; 1999, 170; Kamalov 2001, 58 68;

21 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 21 distinct from the latter and do not appear to have any connection with them. Oghuz is clearly the Common Turkic equivalent of Old West Turkic/Oghuric Oğur with the regular alternation of z and r. As the Chinese translation implies (and the Chinese sources always translate Toquz Oghuz rather than giving it in transcription), Oğur- Oğuz is a political term deriving from kinship usages (cf. oğuš unit smaller than a tribe, or a clan [ ] extended family, family ), oğul ( offspring, child, son ) and denotes a tribal grouping presumably stemming from a com- mon ancestor (real or fictive) 43. Kâshgharî comes to his audience with an agenda and a rather triumphalist tone trumpeted in his opening lines: God Most High has given rule to the Turks, making them kings of the Age, and placing in their hands the reins of temporal authority; appointing them over all mankind [ ] every man of reason must attach himself to them, or else expose himself to their falling arrows (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 70). Now that the Oghuz Turks, i.e. the Seljuks, have emerged, a ḥadîth is adduced urging the reader to learn the tongue of the Turks for their reign will be long. Learning it is, thus, a religious duty, but Kâshgharî also notes that even if this ḥadîth is not sound, still Wisdom demands it (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 70). Turk, he remarks, is a God-given name and an appropriate ḥadîth is noted according to which God has a host whom I have called at-turk and whom I have set in the East; when I am wroth over any people I will make them sovereign above them [ ] (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 274). The Dîwân, an outstanding work of scholarship, is also a work with a political slant: the Turks were now the dominant political-military force in the Muslim world. The Oghuz Turkic Seljuks had become the military arm of the Abbâsid Caliphate several decades earlier (since 1055). Kâshgharî, in part, presents his work as an introduction of the Turkic world, their new masters, to the Arabo-Persian literate public (especially the ruling and bureaucratic elite). Behind this show of Turkic national feeling and solidarity, there were contradictions. While the only internal enmity he mentions within the Turkic world is that of Muslim vs. Non-Muslim, in reality, the Seljuks and the Qarakhanids, both (at least nominally) Sunnî Muslims, in the 1070s were not on the best of terms. The Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan had died (1072) while en route to campaign in Turkic Central Asia. In 1074, his son and successor Malikshâh ( ) forced the Western Qarakhanids to accept the Seljuks as their overlords. Subsequent cam- 43 Clauson 1972, 83 84; 96. See discussion in Golden1972, 45 48; Kafesoğlu 1997, 144 (not an ethnic name, but a term denoting Turkic tribes). W. Bang (1918, ), viewed oǧul as a diminutive form from *oǧ. Sevortian 1974, I, ; ) with possible connections with oğ-, uq- porozhdat, sozdavat and uq rod, poroda, potomstvo, imia. Tenishev 2001, , and Starostin et al. 2003, I, 612, take it back to Altaic *i uga > PMong. *öγele ~ *oγala ( stepbrothers ) PTurk. ogul ( son ). The latters etymologies remain uncertain. Tribe, clan and associated terms have all become contested territory in anthropological literature. Some would abandon these terms altogether; see discussion in Szuchman The nomads, although using the idiom of kinship for political purposes, ma- nipulated and constructed genealogies as needed for political ends; see Khazanov 1984,

22 22 PETER GOLDEN paigns would confirm Seljuk hegemony and extend their orbit to the Eastern Qarakhanids as well 44. Kâshgharî is careful in his comments about the Seljuks. The accounts of Seljuk origins and their relationship, in their pre-imperial stage, with the Khazars and the Oghuz Yabğu (the nominal supreme chieftain of the Oghuz union) contain contradictory elements (see the most recent and thoughtful discussion in Peacock 2010, 27 35, who argues for Seljuk origins in the Khazar realm). Kâshgharî, chronologically close enough to these events, mentions Selčük 45, the dynasty s eponymous founder, only once and his ruling descendants not at all. The Oghuz, the grouping from which they emerged, are not always presented in the best light, although Kâshgharî devotes more attention to their various sub-groupings than to those of any of the other Turkic peoples he discusses 46. Kâshgharî, expectedly fulsome in his praise of the excellence of the Qarakhanids, in his silence on the Seljukids may have also been subtly suggesting that the Caliphs could find better Turkic partners to the east. Kâshgharî, as we noted, was hardly immodest about himself, claiming that he knew the dialects of all the Turkic peoples, that he was among the most elegant among them in language, and the most eloquent in speech, one of the best educated of a distinguished lineage and for good measure the most penetrating in throwing the lance (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 70). His Dîwân, he informs us, has attained the utmost of excellence, and the extreme of refinement (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 72). Although ostensibly covering the Turkic world, its primary focus is on those Turkic peoples, Islamized or not, who were within the immediate Islamic orbit. Thus in recording topographica in general, he remarks that he will rarely stray from names that are not within the Islamic world and with which people are familiar. Names that are found in the lands of Polytheism are largely avoided [ ] since there is no profit in mentioning them (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 82). Again, he is shying away from too close an analysis of the Non-Muslim Turkic world. According to Kâshgharî, the Turk, in origin, numbered twenty tribes (qabâ îl, sing. qabîla; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 82) 47. Kâshgharî uses a variety of Arabic terms to describe these politico-social groupings. They are derived, following 44 Agadzhanov 1991, 93 95; Kafesoğlu 1953, 19 20; ; Golden 1992, 222; Kochnev 2001, Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 356 ( name of the grandfather of the present Sultans. He was called Sälčük sü bāši ). Whether he was the sü bašı ( army commander ) of the Khazar Qaghan or Oghuz Yabğu is one of the conflicting elements in accounts of Seljuk origins. 46 Dankoff, in his prefatory comments (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 47), notes Kâshgharî s ambiguous attitude toward the Oγuz. 47 Tribe is the usual translation of qabîla (pl. qabâ il), used in this sense since Qur ânic times (see Penrice 2004, 114); see also Polosin 1995, 383 plemia ; Kazimirski 1860, II, 668 tribu (chez les peuples nomades). When referring to a specific subgrouping within a tribe Dankoff renders qabîla as subtribe, see discussion in Dankoff 2008d, 58 70, where he notes it is used synonymously with baṭn branch (see below). Actually, there is some fluidity in these usages. Arabic jîl nation, people, race, tribe, or family of mankind [ ] such as the Turks and the Greeks and the Chinese (Lane , I, 2; 494), tribe (Polosin 1995, 383), race of men, coevals, generation (Wehr/Cowan 1994, 178) is the term Kâshgharî uses most commonly for the distinct groupings of the Turks, a tribe, except for the Oghuz (to whom qabîla is applied), while the Chigil, perhaps even more important to Kâshgharî, are termed a qaum; see Dankoff 2008d, 63 65, who also remarks that Kâshgharî does not note a Turkic equivalent for jîl.

23 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 23 the Biblical genealogical tradition, from Turk, a son of Japheth, the son of Noah 48. Each tribe (qabîla) in turn subdivides into branches (buṭûn 49 ) the numbers of which are beyond reckoning. Kâshgharî remarks that he will only note the great ones (lit. the principal tribes, ummahât al-qabâ il). These obviously entail the subbranches of the Oghuz-Türkmen and the brands of their cattle (simât dawâb- bihim) since people need to know them 50, because of the political supremacy of the Seljuks. Why people would need to know the brands of Oghuz herds is never really spelled out. Perhaps the large-scale presence of the Oghuz tribes with their herds in the Middle East, cheek by jowl with local Iranian and Arab populations, was reason enough. Elsewhere, returning to this tribal or subtribal theme, Kâshgharî, repeating his earlier people need to know argument, enumerates the Oghuz sub-groupings. These are the [ principal ] subtribes 51, and each subtribe has divisions (kullu qabîlatin minhâ firaq 52 ) and branches (wa buṭûn clans or clan groupings 53 ) the sub-branches (furû 54 ) of which I have omitted for the sake of brevity. The names of these sub-tribes are the names of their ancestors who gave birth to them in olden times. They trace their ancestry back to them, just as among the Arabs one says Banu Salim or Banu Khafâja 55. Each branch (baṭn) has its own brand 56. These are known in Turkic as tamğa 57. The tamğas would seem to indicate the most basic (but not smallest) politico-economic subdivision. Kâshgharî even provides samples of the Oghuz tamğas. This is our earliest listing of the Oghuz sub-tribes or subdivisions. They are first noted as twenty-two in number and their names are given in the following order: Qınıq ( the chief of them [surratuhum] to which our present sultans belong ), Qayıgh, Bayundur, Ewä 58, Salghur, Afshar, Bäktili, Bügdüz, Bayat, Yazghır, Äymür, Qara Bölük, Alqa Bölük, İgdir, Ürägir or Yürägir, Tutırgha, Ula Yondlugh, Töger, 48 This was common to Arab historiography since the 9 th century, as were also ancient Iranian genealogical traditions connecting the Turks to Ṭûj, son of Afrîdûn; see Kalinina 2007, Lane , , baṭn: A tribe below that which is termed qabîla. Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, 68, translates buṭûn (pl. of baṭn) as vetvi ( branches ). Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 73, renders it as rody ( clans ). 50 Kaşgarlı 1941, 20; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 82; Kaşgarlı Mahmut/Atalay , I, Kaşgarlı 1941, 41 [Arabic]: uşûl qabâ ilihim lineages/ roots/descent of their tribes. Here, he refers to the primary subcomponent of the Oghuz as qabîla, which Dankoff here renders as subtribe, but other translators have as clan or retain tribe : Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, 94 ( osnovnye rody ); Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 97 (speaking of osnovnye plemena ). 52 Arabic sing. firq portion, group, cf. Lane , : firq piece, or portion, that is split from a thing [ ] a great flock or herd, firqa party, portion, division, sect or detached body or class. 53 Kaşgarlı 1941, 41; Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, 94, branches vetv; Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 97 (clan groups rodovykh grupp). 54 Lane , 2379, far, furû, branch of anything, subdivision. 55 Kaşgarlı 1941, 4. My translation differs slightly from that in Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, Kaşgarlı 1941, 41; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, ; Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, 92 94; Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, Clauson 1972, , originally a brand or mark of ownership placed on horses, cattle, and other livestock,subsequently used like a European coat of arms or crest on funerary monuments. 58 I have usually followed Dankoff s transcriptions, but Kaşgarlı 1941, 26 27, and Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 85, note that the Oghuz regularly change ڨ produced between the points of articulation for Arabic fâ and sound bâ (i.e. w) in genuine Turkic is changed to vâv by the Oghuz and those who follow them. Thus, äw house becomes äv in Oghuz. Notice genuine Turkic is juxtaposed with Oghuz Turkic. In Oghuz, then, this name would be Evä or in its variant (see below) Yevä.

24 24 PETER GOLDEN Bächänäk (Pecheneg), Chuvaldar, Chäpni, Charuqlugh 59. The order in which they are given probably has political significance in terms of seniority and rank. This is somewhat further amplified in the later lists of Oghuz tribes, in which they number twenty-four, found in Rashîd al-dîn (d. 1318) and Abu l-ghâzî Bahadur Khan (d. 1663). The lists do not completely correspond. Some fluidity in tribal composition is to be expected. Rashîd al-dîn produces the tamğas as well, many of which remained unchanged despite the centuries separating the two reports 60. It is highly unlikely that Rashîd al-dîn had access to Kâshgharî s work. In addition to this complex tribal structure, Kâshgharî also mentions a series of Oghuz cities. Urban associations do not figure prominently in earlier sources on the Oghuz. Whether they founded these towns or as is more likely simply became associated with them for trading and other purposes, awaits further investigation. Islamization undoubtedly played a role here. The cities are listed in the order of their appearance in the Dîwân: Sabran, Sitkün (often noted elsewhere as sütkend milk city, clearly a Turkic folk etymology), Qarnaq, Sughnaq, Qarachuq (Fârâb, later Otrar) 61. He does not add details. Curiously absent is any mention of Yaŋı Känt (Pers. Dih-i Nau, Arabic Madînat al-jadîda or Qaryat al-ḥadîtha), now the ruins of Dzhankent, the onetime winter quarters of the Oghuz Yabğu 62. Settled Oghuz had a lower social status. Kâshgharî explains the word yatuq (< yat- to lie down, sleep, [of nomads] to settle in one place ; Clauson 1972, 884) as a class of Oghuz, in their own land, who never nomadize or go on raiding expeditions; they are called yatuq meaning lazy ones, ones left behind (Kâšγarî/ Dankoff , II, 153) 63. At the very end of his Dîwân, Kâshgharî, under the heading of Türkmän, a term often synonymous with Islamized Oghuz (but denoting Islamized Qarluqs as well), associates their early history, before cities and settlements, such as Ṭirâz, Isbîjâb and Balasaghun had been built, with a tale about Dhu -l Qarnayn and his wars with the legendary king of the Turks, Shu. The latter, having been defeated, 59 Kaşgarlı 1941, 40; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, ; Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, 92 94; Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, Rashîd al-dîn 1373/1994, I, (with the divisions into Bozoq and Üčoq) here the Qınıq of the Üčoq appear last and the Qayı of the Bozoq are first. They all stem from the six sons of Oghuz Khan. The groupings/peoples/tribes (aqwâm) are the Bozoq, Kün Khan s sons, Qayı, Bayat, Alqa İwli (Äwli), Qara İwli (Äwli), Ay Khan s sons, Yazır, Dögär, Dudurgha, Yaparlı, Yulduz Khan s sons, Avshar, Qızıq, Bigdili, Qarqın and Üchoq, Kök Khan s sons, Bayundur, Bechänä, Chavuldur, Chäpni/Chipni, Tagh Khan s sons, Salur, İmür/Äymür, Ula Yontlu, Örägir/Ürägir, Tiŋiz Khan s sons, İgdir, Bügdüz, Yiwä [Yivä], Qınıq, and the variants of Abu l-ghâzî Bahâdur Khan with virtually the same order and names, see Abu l-ghâzî Bahadur Khan/Desmaisons 1970, [Turkic] 27 28; [French Transl.] (with Ala Yontlı for Ula Yondlugh), and Abu l-ghâzî Bahadur Khan/Ölmez 1996, (with Yasır for Yapır/Yaparlı). On these tribes and the distribution (remnants of some are still to be found today), see the encyclopaedic work of Sümer 1980 and the briefer discussion in Genç 1997, On the tamğas, see Divitçioğlu 2003, See Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 329; 333; 352; 353;362; Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk 1978, ; Sümer 2006, Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, 123; Minorsky 1970, 122. See Golden 1992, 209; Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk 1978, Cf. Kazakh žataq poor people who do not go out to the summer pastures because of a lack of pack animals (see Syzdyqova/Khūsaĭyn 2008, 310), Qırghız jataqčı a poor person who, not having cattle, was forced to spend the summer in the winter quarters (Iudakhin 1965, 239).

25 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 25 left twenty-two men behind these were the ancestors of the Oghuz. Two men were added to the group, the ancestors of the Khalaj (Qalač) and thus the whole group consisted of twenty-four. Previously considered an aberrant branch of Oghuz Turkic, Khalaj (now in Central Iran, earlier there were substantial numbers of them in Afghanistan and dispersed elsewhere in Central Eurasia; Inaba 2005), today, is considered a distinct or autonomous sub-grouping of the Turkic languages, one that underwent considerable areal influence with Oghuz, in particular its western branches, but retains a number of archaic features 64. Kâshgharî, commenting further on the Oghuz, remarks [i]n origin they are 24 tribes, but the two Khalajiyya tribes are distinguished from them in certain respects and are not counted among them (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 363). King Shu was pursued by Dhu l- Qarnayn and finally managed to defeat the latter s vanguard in the area near Uyğur at a mountain called Altun Qan. Peace followed and Dhu l-qarnayn built the Uyghur cities (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 363). There are many interesting elements in this account (including how Dhu l-qarnayn gave the Oghuz the name Türkmän based on a Persian popular etymology: Turk-mânand they look like Turks ), which will not be discussed here, but it is interesting to point out that Altun Qan ( Golden Khan ) may perhaps indicate some distant historical memory of the Altay Mountains (< altaň gold 65 ), called in Chinese 金山 Jinshan ( Golden Mountain ), an ancient homeland of the Turkic peoples 66. Aside from his first listing, Kâshgharî only mentions the Bayat, Charuqlugh, Qayıgh and Yewä/Ewä [Yevä/Evä] in other notices in the Dîwân 67. The Bächänäk are also noted, but here a different branch, actually the main body of the Bächänäks, is meant 68. Kâshgharî does not clearly distinguish them. In this regard a few words about the listing are in order. The Bächänäk (Печенҍгъ, pl. Печенҍзи), Pechenegs of the Rus accounts 69, the Πατζινάκοι, Πατζινακῖται of the Byzantine sources (Moravcsik 1958, II, ), Be ca nag in an Uyghuro-Tibetan source (probably from the latter half of the 8th century) 70 are Pecheneg elements that had been brought into the 64 Bartol d 1968d; Schoenig 1997a, 120; 1997b, ; Doerfer 1987; 1998, ; 2006, 110; Johanson 1998, 82. Others (cf. Shcherbak 1997, ) view it as Oghuzic, but containing some distinct elements. On its connection with Arghu, see below. 65 Cf. Turk. altın/altun, Mong. altan gold, Manchu aisin metal, gold (< al sin < altin); see Sevortjan 1974, I, ; Tsintsius , I, On the Türk ethnogonic tale that brings them to the Altai, see Liu (1958, I, 5; 40) and Golden (2008/2009, ). 67 Kaşgarlı 1941, 570; 248; 517; 454; 455; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 236 (Bayât name of a clan [qabîla] of Oghuz ); I, 369 (Charuq a clan of the Oghuz ); II, 234 (Qayıgh A clan of the Oghuz ); II, 158 (Yewä a sub- tribe of Oghuz also pronounced Yevä); 160 (Yevä Dialectal variant of Yewä A subtribe [qabîla] of Oghuz ). It is once noted as Ewä (Kaşgarlı 1941, 57, baṭn min al- Ghuzziyya; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 124, a branch of the Oghuz ); see also Dankoff 2008d, Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 262, notes both, a tribe of the Turks dwelling near Rûm and a clan of the Oghuz. 69 PSRL , I, 65; first notice s.a Venturi 2008, 31. The account reports that the Be ca nag war with the Hor by which the Oghuz are most probably meant. The Uyghurs, on occasion, used Tibetan for religious (Buddhist) and chancellery purposes. Turkic texts were also written using the Tibetan script; see Róna-Tas 1991, 95 pp. Venturi 2008, 5 8, dates it to the late 8th century. It was either written in Tibetan or translated into Tibetan from Uyghur oral sources.

26 26 PETER GOLDEN Oghuz union after most of the Pechenegs had fled to the Pontic steppes. Their arrival there probably began in the first third of the 9th century and by the last decade of that century they had become a powerful force there, elements of which may have accepted some degree of subordination to the Khazars (Golden 1972, 57 63) 71. Others posed a threat, reflected perhaps in the construction by the Byzantines of the Khazar fort of Sarkel/Sharkil on the left bank of the lower Don in It is unclear if the Charuqlugh have any relationship with the Charuq, a Turkic tribe, which inhabited the city of Barchuq (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 292) 73, perhaps an element added on to the Oghuz, like the Pecheneg grouping. The Ula Yondlugh are probably the Ala Yondlugh possessors of piebald horses. This latter reading finds support in the 8th century Uyghuro-Tibetan report on the peoples of the North (see above) which notes the Ha la yun log Turks and this great tribe is happy; therefore they are called the piebald horse Turks (Venturi 2008, 31 and note 102, located them in southwestern Siberia). The Qayıgh, ranked second in this listing immediately after the Qınıq (from whom the Seljuk ruling house descended), were viewed subsequently as the ancestors of the Ottomans, a claim that was promoted most clearly beginning with 15th century Ottoman historical writings 74. These dislocations, described by al-marwazî (a Seljuk court physician, d. after 1120) pushed into the lands of the (Qarluq) Türkmen and the Oghuz (Marwazî/ Minorsky 1942, [Arabic] 18; [English] 29 30) 75. As a consequence, the appearance of tribes or elements of tribes from the former Kimek union among the Oghuz of Kâshgharî s era is not surprising. In short, the composition of the Oghuz as we find it in Kâshgharî may have only relatively recently taken on this profile. In subsequent eras (e.g., the descriptions in Rashîd al-dîn and much later in Abu l-ghâzî s works), while many elements remained in common, others changed. The Bayındır would become the paramount clan of the Aq Qoyunlu ruling house, rivals of the Ottomans, with competing origin tales set in the glory days of the Oghuz (Woods 1999, 11 et passim). Kâshgharî notes two Turkic terms, both associated with Oghuz Turkic that Dankoff has rendered as subtribe or branch : oba and boy (in other dialects boδ, usually rendered in English as clan or lineage 76 ). With regard to oba, Kašġarî 71 Newly subordinated elements were often placed in the front ranks of the army; see Németh 1991, 37 38; 262. On the Pecheneg union; see Pritsak 1975; Golden 1992, The Ḥudûd al- Âlam (Ḥudûd/Sutûdah 1983, ; Minorsky 1970, 160; ) mentions the Khazarian Pečenegs (Bajanâk-i Khazar). It is unclear if these Pechenegs were merely groups that had settled in Khazar lands or were under Khazar control, as other Pechenegs were under Oghuz control. A great many of the Khazar slaves (bardah-yi khazarî, mainly captives taken in war) brought to the Islamic lands, according to the Ḥudûd, came from them. 72 On the dating, see Zuckerman (1997, ; 221), who views the Hungarians, whom the Pechenegs drove ahead of them and ultimately out of the Pontic steppes ca. 895, as the primary cause for the building of Sarkel. 73 Barchuq = Maralbashı, west of Aqsu (western Xinjiang); see Minorsky 1970, On this complex topic, see most recently Lindner 2007, 24 34, and İnalcık s supplement on the background of Osman Beg in İnalcık et al. 2010, On the various actors in these migrations, see Golden 2006/2007, Clauson 1972, : bôδ ( prob. originally stature, the size of a man ; but from the earliest period it also clearly means a clan [ ] ). Similarly, Tenishev/Dybo 2006, 525, who suggest that boδ/boy in the meaning of plemia, narod,

27 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 27 comments that it means tribe (qabîla) in the Oghuz dialect (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 122; Kâshgharî/Auezova 2005, 118 [plemia]; Kâshgharî/Kormushin 2010, 117 [plemia]) 77. The term although not noted in the Mamlûk- Qıpchaq dictionaries, can be found in the names of the tribes, sub-tribes and clans of the Cuman- Qıpchaqs reported in Rus and Arabic sources (e.g., the Altunopa, Ayopa, Chenegrepa [Ченегрепа: *Čenegir-opa], It-oba, Qitan-opa et al.; Golden , ). Kâshgharî has rather more to say about boy. He cites the customary greeting employed when two Oghuz meet who do not know each other meet: boy kim who you are your people/clan? 78 He provides a number of definitions of boy 79 indicating the range and depth of this term: rahṭ ( a man s people, and tribe, consisting of his nearer relations, his near kinfolk, or family, clan tribe 80 ), qabîla 81 ( tribe ), ašîra ( friend, clan, tribe, patrilineal kinsmen ) 82 and qawm ( people, tribe, nation, fellow kinsmen, folk, nation, people, tribe 83 ). The language used is that of the idiom of kinship, regardless of the political realities it may have hidden. Indeed, as Dankoff concluded, actual kinship identification does not extend beyond the subtribe or branch, at least in the case of the Oġuz 84. Kâshgharî s travels had clearly brought him into rod ( tribe, people clan ) is a secondary development from the original meaning of this word as body, trunk, torso (telo, tulovishche). See also Starostin et al. 2003, I, 365. If the latter are correct, the earliest sense of the Altaic *bòdà from which they derive these and other terms is body; intestines, belly > Proto-Turkic *bod body, stature, self, kin, tribe, counter for persons, length. 77 Clauson 1972, 5 6, small social unit, possibly, ʽclan, but prob. even smaller, extended family etc.. This came to be associated with the physical habitation of this group and hence subsequently denoted the dwelling place of such a unit; small encampment or large tent, and thence more generally tent, hut etc. Starostin et al. 2003, II, 1059, associate it with Mong. obuġ clan, family from presumed Altaic *ṓpv. See also discussion in Tenishev/Dybo 2006, 526, noted in Old Turkic and Old and Middle Qıpchaq, Čağatay, Uzbek, KazanTatar, Qazaq, Modern Uyghur as well as Modern Oghuz tongues, and with the primary sense of clan, tribe, people, perhaps first meaning a pile, heap, collection of stones. Cf. also Sevortian 1974, I, , which does not exclude the possibility that this was an old borrowing in Oghuz and Old Uyghur, in the form opa (the source is not indicated). 78 Kaşgarlı 1941, 170 boy kim (man al-qabîla); 505; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 267; II, 219; Kâshgharî/ Auezova 2005, 329 (rendered as sorodichi kinsmen ); 844 (rendered as obshchina, plemia, rod community, tribe, clan ). 79 Tenishev/Dybo 2006, 525, suggest that boδ/boy, in the meaning of plemia, narod, rod ( tribe, people clan ), is a secondary development from the original meaning of this word as body, trunk, torso (telo, tulovishche). 80 Lane , I/3, 1169; Polosin 1995, 201; Kazimirski 1860, I, 938, Famille, tribu d un home, de trois à sept, compose d hommes seuls. 81 On this term, see above. 82 Polosin 1995, 325; Lane , I/5, 203 a man s kin- folk or his nearer or nearest relatives or next of kind by descent from the same father or ancestor, small subtribe or smallest division in subdivision of a tribe [ ] or a tribe (synonymous with qabîla) ; Kazimirski 1860, II, 262 Proches parents du côté paternal, Famille (subdivision d une tribu). Dankoff 2008d, 68, cites ašîra as meaning clan in Kâshgharî, the translation of Turkic oğuš (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 104), see DTS 1969, 365 oğuš rod, plemia, oğuš bodun rodovye podrazdelenija i narody ; Tenishev/Dybo 2006, 526; 527 rod, plemia, kasta < oq/oğ os, stvol (dereva), serdtsevina, and variant uquš rod, plemia, narod, pokolenie, potomstvo, rodstvenniki, poroda, klass ; User 2010, oğuš boy, kabile. Dankoff 2008d, 68, adds in his definition: that group of kins- men who answer to the call for help of one of their number, usually to do battle with a rival group. Clau- son 1972, 96, reads it as uğuš: in the early period a population unit smaller than a tribe, or a clan, but larger than a single unitary family, extended family, or less precisely, family and subsequently generation or degree of relationship. 83 Polosin 1995, 408; Kazimirski 1860, 840 Peuplade, tribu, people (y compris les deux sexes) ; Wehr/Cowan 1994, Dankoff 2008d, 67 70, who also cites there a range of smaller kinship terms (which need not detain us here) and the Oghuz and Qıpchaq usage, köküŋ kim? lit. who is your root? which Kâshgharî (Kâšγarî/ Dankoff , I,

28 28 PETER GOLDEN direct contact with Oghuz tribal groupings. Curiously, he does not tell us if the Qarakhanids et al. employed similar interogations regarding affiliations. From boδ, which had become boy in Oghuz and some other branches of Turkic (δ > z > y change), the collective noun boδun was formed. This was the earliest Turkic terms we have for an organized tribal community, a people in the sense of a community ruled by a particular ruler 85. It was used with reference to other Turkicspeaking peoples (e.g., Toquz Oğuz boδun 86 ) as well as non-turkic (e.g., Tabğač/Tavğač boδun the Chinese people 87 ). In Kâshgharî, as Clauson points out, it appears as boδun and bodun and is usually translated as tribe(s) (al- qawm, al-aqwâm, al-qabîla) or people (al-nâs, see also Dankoff 2008d, 68). In one phrase, bodunluğ boqunluğ kiši: [o]ne who has kinsmen (dhû rahṭ wa- ašîra) 88, it continues to point to the kinship associations of bodun. In the Chigil dialect of his era, bodun denoted [s]ubjects, commoners (ar-ra îya wa- awâmm an-nâs; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 304). In the Qutaδğu Bilig, written in 1069 by Kâshgharî s contemporary, Yûsuf Khâṣṣ Ḥâjib of Balasaghun, bodun signifies both people as a community and (more frequently) individuals 89. Kâshgharî does not use it in the sense of a national community, a connotation associated with the term in the Türk and Uyghur inscriptions. However, it was still employed in its original sense in the Uyghur translation of the biography of the noted 7th century Chinese traveler/buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang by Shıŋqo Sheli Tutuŋ (ca ca. 1050) of Beshbalıq in the Qocho Uyghur state 90. The fragmentation of the Eurasian steppe world following the collapse of the Türk Empire ( in the east, 766 in the west) and the rise and fall of separate states and loosely configured polities since then may have made the term bodun less associated with a specific people. 104) renders as From whom is your origin and to which tribe are you related? He also mentions other terms that express kinship loyalties largely pertaining to smaller groupings. 85 Clauson 1972, 306 lit. clans in practice a semi-tech- nical term ; Zimonyi 2003 Gentilverband ; Tenishev/Dybo 2006, 523 narod, naselenie, poddannye, which might be connected with bodu- prikrepliat, prilepliat, pritsepliat ; User 2010, kabile, boylar, halk; maiyet and all its attestations in the Türk and Uyghur inscriptions; see also Giraud 1960, The term continued on in Old Anatolian Oghuz in the sense of nomad encampment, tribe, nomadic tribe, village ; Kanar 2011, 138 oba, kabile, aşiret, köy. 86 Rivals and uneasy vassals of the Türks, a tribal union in which the Uyghurs, the eventual successors of the Turks, played the dominant role; see Golden 1992, 145; ; Kamalov 2001, Cf. the Tonyuquq inscription (726, W1) in which Tonyuquq, speaking of himself, says bän özẅ m taβγač eliñä qïlïndïm I myself was born in the Tabghach state (Berta 2004, 43). 88 Kaşgarlı 1941, 249; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 370. Clauson, 1972, 316, views boqun as a jingle word accompanying bodun. 89 Clauson 1972, 306; see also Kutadgu Bilig/Arat 1979 and Yûsuf Khâṣṣ Ḥâjib/Dankoff 1983; Bombaci 1969, 88; Kaşgarlı 1941, 519; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 237, once notes the form boyun people (qawm) for those dialects with the shift δ > y. 90 See discussion in Xuanzang/Tugusheva 1991, 17 22; 132; 133. On the dating of Shıŋqo Sheli Tutuŋ, see Xuanzang/Barat 2000, xi-xiv, and Xuanzang/Tugusheva 1991, 24. It is found here in the phrase türk yočul bodun a translation of the Chinese Xiongnu, their designation for the Asian Huns, used here probably in the generic sense of a Turkic nomadic people.

29 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 29 A TURKIC LITERARY CULTURE In Kâshgharî s time, the Turkic-speaking peoples were not all or for the most part organized into a single state as had been the case in the Türk era. Substantial numbers were stateless, be- longing to acephalous confederations, such as the recently established, sprawling Qıpchaq realm (the Dašt-i Qifčâq of Islamic authors and the dikoe pole Wild Steppe of the Rus sources), which extended from the Danubian zone to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan and the lands north of the Qarakhanid state, or the small non-muslim Uyghur statelet of the Tarim and Turfan regions with centers in Bešbalıq and Qočo ruled by the Idıqut/Iduqqut 91. There were three Turko-Islamic states, two of them within or contiguous to the Muslim Middle East: the Seljuk Empire, centered in Iran-Iraq, expanding into the Mediterranean littoral and Anatolia and exercising varying degrees of power over its eastern neighbor, the Qarakhanid state in Central Eurasia. The third Turko-Islamic state and the first of them to embrace Islam (in the early decades of the 10th century) was that of the Bulghars centered on the Middle Volga. Kâshgharî knows the city of Bulghar, which he calls a well-known city of the Turks (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 343) 92. The Volga Bulğars were a commercial presence, but not an important military force. Their ancestors, who arrived in the Pontic steppelands with or just after the first wave of Oghuric tribes, ca. 463 CE, had been among the subject peoples of the Türk and then Khazar Qaghanates. From the latter part of the 7th or more probably the 8th century into the early 10th century Oghuro-Bulgharic tribes had been migrating to the Middle Volga region where the Volga Bulghar state had taken shape by the late 9th century (Zimonyi 1990, 82 83; ; ). There are some examples of runiform writing on objects dating to the 11th 12th centuries, i.e. a period after their Islamization. These appear to be connected with the runiform script attested in the Kuban region, an area from which their forebears had migrated (see Kyzlasov 1994, 15 pp. 74 fn. 13) 93. To what extent they participated in the Türk culture that extended from Mongolia to the Volga-North Caucasian steppe zone remains little explored. We do not find Arabic-script inscriptions until after the Mongols conquests and these are grave inscriptions, written in a mixed Arabic and Bulgharo-Turkic tongue. They date to 1281 and continue into the mid-14th century 94. The Oghuz-derived Seljuks, and the tribes that constituted the Qarakhanids, stemmed directly from the dislocations caused by the collapse of the Türk Empire. Despite subsequent Islamization in the 10th and early 11th century, they had continued to use the Turkic writing system (kitâbat al-turkiyya), i.e. the Sogdian- 91 For overview see Golden 1992, Medieval Rus sources called it Великий город the great city. Its location, probably on the confluence of the Volga and Kama, has been debated. Recent scholarship associates it with the ruins of Bilyar (Biliar) on the Malyj Cheremshan River in Tatarstan; see Khuzin 1997, There are also runiform inscriptions from Balkan Bulgaria (see Rashev 2007, ), whither other Bulghar groups migrated in 679 CE. 94 Tryjarski 1985; Tekin 1988; Erdal 1993.

30 30 PETER GOLDEN derived (ultimately Aramaic-based) Uyghur script 95, as did also the non-muslim Uyghurs. We can be certain of this with regard to the Qarakhanids and it may have been true of some of the Oghuz as well. Kâshgharî says the Turkic script was used for all documents and correspondence of the Qaghans and Sultans, the former certainly a reference to the Qarakhanids and the latter perhaps to the Seljuk rulers (although Seljuk Uyghur-script documents have not been found), from ancient times to the present, but then defines the area of usage as from Kâšġar to Upper Ṣîn, encompassing all the lands of the Turks (muḥdiqan jamî diyâr al-turk; Kaşgarlı 1941, 8; Kâšγari , I, 78). Kâshgharî s notices on Ṣîn (generally understood as China ) are not always clear. The area of Upper Ṣîn is associated with Mâṣîn (Pers. Mâčîn) which is also Tawġač 96, from the Old Turkic term for the 北魏 Northern Wei or 拓拔魏 Tuoba 97 Wei/Tabghach dynasty ( ) that ruled in Northern China and a name that figures in Qarakhanid titulature 98. In his era, it denoted China proper, i.e. the area with a predominance of ethnic Han Chinese. His comments seem to restrict the Turkic (i.e. Uyghur) to the non-seljuk world. The oldest Turkic documents in Arabic script stem from the 13th century (Scharlipp 1995, 56 58; for Old Anatolian Turkish see Köktekin 2008). Kâshgharî adds some interesting details. Immediately after his entry on Tawghach as a geographical region, he says that it is the name of a tribe of the Turks who settled in those regions. From this comes one of the terms used for the Uyghurs (who were not held in high regard because of religion): Tat Tawğač (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 341: meaning Uighur [which is Tat] and Ṣînî [which is Tawğač] ). Tat was a Turkic term for stranger, alien usually with pejorative associations. Kâshgharî uses it in particular for Uyghur infidels and Persians 99. His explanations of the proverb, tatsız türk bolmas bašsız börk bolmas ( there is no Turk without a Tat [just as] there is no hat without a head), is particularly 95 See comments of Sims-Williams 1981, who views the Uyghur script system as a natural development of the Sogdian, the unpremeditated outcome of the attempt to write Turkish by people familiar with the Sogd. alphabet and its associated conventions. In some respects this is similar to the development of Cyrillic among the Bulgarians who used Greek uncials to compose inscriptions in Greek, but with some Bulğar Turkic words. 96 Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 341, under the entry on Tawğač, he says that the latter, in his day, is the name for Mâṣîn which is four months journey from Ṣîn. The latter, in turn, originally had three components, the Upper part in the east, called Tawğač, the middle part, Khiṭây (presumably the Liao state [ ] and now known as Ṣin ) in the center and Lower Ṣîn which is the Barskhân-Kâshghar region, here, obviously, a reference to the eastern lands of the Qarakhanid state. Tawğač/ Upper China /Arab. Mâṣîn/ Pers. Mâčîn, in Kâshgharî s time was the region ruled by the Chinese Song dynasty ( , occa- sionally an opponent of the Liao). See also Bartol d 1968a, 87; 1968b, 206. Marwazî (Marwazî/Minorsky 1942, [Arabic] 2; [English] 14) also presents a threefold division of Ṣîn, Qitay/Khitây and Uyghur (Yughur). 97 MC: t h âk băt (Schuessler 2009, 69 [2-17m]; 237 [21-31h]) = *probably *takbat/takbać reflecting either the native (Proto Mongolic/Para-Mongolic; see Janhunen 2003, 392) Tabghach form of this ethnonym, *taγβač or one that came to Turkic via Rouran intermediation. See discussion in Beckwith 2005, 9 12, who also suggests that it meant ruler (βač < Indic pati) of the Earth. 98 Genç 1981, 133; The Northern Wei split into the Eastern Wei ( ) and Western Wei ( ). 99 Clauson 1972, 449; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 88 ( Uyghur infidel ); 341; 388 ( unbeliever ); II, 103 (specifically in the Yaghma and Tukhsi dialects); 111 ( Uyghur infidel ); I, 273; II, 70 ( Persian ). In I, 388, Kâshgharî quotes the saying čomaq tat boynın čapdı The Muslim (čomaq) struck the neck of the unbeliever and tells us that this is Uyghur dialect. In I, 292, he notes explicitly that čomaq, literally cudgel (a loanword, perhaps, for this weapon not usually associated with Turkic warfare, but retained in a number of Middle Turkic and modern Turkic languages, as Clauson 1972, , notes) is used specifically by the Uyghurs and other non-muslim Turkic peoples to denote a Muslim (cf. also čomaq äri, a man of the Muslims ). However, it is also used in decidedly Muslim works, e.g., the ersig čomaq ( manly Muslim ) of the Qutaδğu Bilig (Kutadgu Bilig/Arat 1979, 471 line 4701; Yûsuf Khâṣṣ Ḥâjib/Dankoff 1983, 194).

31 THE TURKIC WORLD IN MAHMÛD AL-KÂSHGHARÎ 31 interesting. He offers two translations: a Turk is never without a Persian [Fârisî] (just as) a cap is never without a head the more literal one and There is no Persian except in the company of a Turk (just as) there is no cap unless there is a head to put it on (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 273; II, 103). The first puts the Turks in a position of dependency on the Persians; the second reverses that dependency. He cites another proverb, playing on the homonym, tat ( rust ): qılıč tatıqsa iš yunčır är tatıqsa ät tınčır when rust overtakes a sword the condition (of the warrior) suffers, (just as) when a Turk assumes the morals of a Persian his flesh begins to stink. This is coined to advise a person to be steadfast and to live among his own kind (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 103). Another saying is: tatığ közrä tikänig tüprä (Strike) the Persian on the eye (cut) the thorn at its root (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 103). Even the Oghuz, whom Kâšġarî views as the Turkic grouping which most closely associated with (and was hence corrupted by) the Persians, referred to the latter as suqaq, literally white antelope (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 105), undoubtedly used in a derogatory sense. Clearly, the Turk-Persian symbiosis in Central Eurasia had its strains. The Qarakhanids also used the more neutral ethnonym täžik to denote the Persians proper (Fârisî; Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 296; II, 323). Yûsuf Khâṣṣ Ḥâjib held the Persian literary tradition in high esteem, commenting that if the Täžiklär had not written down the tales of Afrâsiyâb (with whom the Qarakhanid Turks identified the mythic Turk hero Alp Er Toŋa) in books who could have understood it if it were not written down? (Kutadgu Bilig/Arat 1979, 42 lines 280; 289; Yûsuf Khâṣṣ Ḥâjib/Dankoff 1983, 48). Non-Turks, or more precisely persons who did not speak Turkic were held in some disdain. They were called Somlım, a term unattested outside of Khâqânî Turkic (Clauson 1972, 829). Thus, a Somlım Tat was a Persian who does not know any Turkic or anyone who does not speak Turkic. Non-Turks usually do not speak (sözle-) but somlı- jabber : tat qamuğ som- lıšdı: the Persians all jabbered, which Kâshgharî renders as the Persians jabbered in their own tongue. Also for any who jabber in a non-turkic language (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , I, 244; II, 70; 302; 136 (somlıt- to make someone speak in a non-turkic tongue ). Unlike the Arabic ajam barbarians, non-arabs a jamî, a label, which remained attached to non- Arabic- speakers even after they had acquired Arabic, when a non-turk learned to speak Turkic, the term somlım leaves him (Kâšγarî/Dankoff , II, 136). In short, Turkicization brought assimilation/acceptance. For Kâshgharî, language was a key component of Turkic identity. Məqalənin davamını növbəti sayımızda oxuya bilərsiniz.

32 TÜRKOLOGİYA DİLÇİLİK ЯЗЫКОЗНАНИE LINGUISTICS AHMET NAHMEDOV (Türkiye) AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE Özet Azerbaycan Türkçesinde konuşmak, ses çıkarmak anlamında kullanılan din- fiili Kaşgarlı dan başlayarak yazılı abidelerde çeşitli fonetik varyantlarla görülmektedir. Muhtemelen, tıñ ses kökünden oluşmuş tıñ- fiili ilk zamanlar yavaş sesle konuşmak anlamını içermiş, daha sonraları Oğuzlar bunu konuşmak, diğer Türkler susmak anlamında kullanmışlar. Dinlenmek, solumak anlamlı tın- fiili ile karıştırıldığından dolayı hem normal hem nazal şekilleri ortaya çıkmış; Oğuz ve Kıpçak boylarının bir arada yaşadığı sahalarda d~t, n~m ses değişimleriyle hem konuşmak hem susmak için kullanılmıştır. Türkiye Türkçesinde tın- fiilindeki d~t değişimi İstanbul ağzına Kıpçak etkisiyle açıklanabilir. Azerbaycan Türkçesindeki din- (<tıñ-) fiili Eski Oğuz (Anadolu) sahasındaki konuşmak anlamını korumuştur. Anahtar kelimeler: Azerbaycan Türkçesi, Oguz, Kıpçak, Türkiye Türkçesi, ses değişimi. Türkçede konuşmak anlamlı birçok fiil bulunmaktadır. Eski Türkçede bulunan te- kökü ti-, de-, di-, diy-; ay- kökü ayt- ; sözleş- (<sözle-) gövdesi söyle-, süylö-, höyle-, höyleş-, söyleş-, sözle-, sözli-, sözleş- şekilleriyle bugün de çağdaş lehçelerde kullanılmaktadır. Bunların dışında farklı köklerden türemiş konuş-, danış-, gepir-, geple-, gürle- gibi yine konuşmak anlamlı fiillere de rastlamak mümkün. Bunlar çoğunlukla belli coğrafyalarla sınırlı yerel oluşumlardır ve anlam genişlemesiyle konuşmak, söylemek için kullanılmaktadır. Benzer fiillerden birisi de Azerbaycan Türkçesinde bu anlamda kullanılan din- fiilidir. Azerbaycan Türkçesinde ilk anlamı konuşmak, söz söylemek olan dinfiili, bunun dışında ses çıkarmak, sesi duyulmak, (söz söyleyerek) hatırını Türkiye, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, Prof., Dr. [email protected]

33 AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE 33 kırmak, tekdir etmek anlamlarında kullanılmaktadır. Azerbaycan Türkçesinin İzahlı Lügati nde bu fiil aşağıdaki şekilde açıklanmaktadır: Dinmək f. 1. Danışmaq, söz söyləmək. Hə adam istəyir hirsini yesin, dinməsin, insanı özbaşına qoymurlar, dindirirlər. C.Məmmədquluzadə. Bala fərəhləndi, ana sevindi; Gah Gülər danışdı, gah Rəna dindi. M. Rahim 2. Səslənmək, eşidilmək. O, indi düşünür həyata dair; Dinir qulağında topların səsi. S. Vurğun. Toplarımız dinən zaman sular olur lal. Ə. Cəmil 3. Acıqlanmaq, söz demək, keyfinə dəymək. Sənə dinmədikcə, əbləh, azıxıb yolun çaşırsan! M. Ə. Sabir [2,640]. Bunların dışında yine Azerbaycan edebiyatından din- fiilinin kullanılmasıyla ilgili çok sayıda örnekler de vermek mümkün: Dindirir əsr bizi, dinməyiriz / Atılan toplara diksinməyiriz (Asır bizi konuşturuyor, ama konuşmuyoruz / Atılan top seslerinden irkilmiyoruz). M.Ə.Sabir [4, 647]. Di ver cavabını, nə durmusan? Din! / Hə, yenə döyükür sarsaq gözlərin (Hadi, ne duruyorsun, ver şunun cevabını. Konuş! / Bak, yine şaşırmış aptal gözlerin.) S.Vurgun [7, 403]. Sərkarov dindirməsə, dinməzdi (Serkarov onu konuşturmazsa konuşmazdı) İ.Məlikzadə [18, 158]. Farklı eklerle genişletilen bu fiil kökü çoğunlukla sözlükteki ilk anlamına yakın anlamlar kazanmaktadır: Din-dir- ettirgenlik eki alan fiil 1. konuşturmak, bir şey söylemesini sağlamak ve 2. bir işi aydınlığa kavuşturmak için konuşturmak, sorgulamak, sorguya çekmek, istintak anlamlarının yanı sıra mecazi anlamda bir müzik aletini çalmak için de kullanılmaktadır. Türkiye Türkçesindeki rahatlatmak, rahat etmesini sağlamak, dinlendirmek anlamına ancak 20.Yy. başlarındaki bazı eserlerde rastlamak mümkündür. Bunun da sebebi bu dönem şair ve yazarlarının Gaspıralı nın Dilde birlik sloganına uyarak eserlerini İstanbul ağzına yakın bir dilde yazmalarıydı. (Yerlərdə süründün yetişər, göylərə qaldır / Dindir qucağında. H. Cavid veya Ürkək baxışlarınla ruhumu dindirəydin / Məni sevindirəydin. M. Müşfiq ). Azerbaycan Türkçesinin İzahlı Lügati bu kullanımı mec. (mecaz) notu ile almaktadır[2,640]. Din-dir-mə- olumsuzluk ekiyle kullanıldığı zaman (küs, dargın olduğu için) konuşmamak anlamını almaktadır. Dinib-danışmaq ikilemesi din- fiilinin 1. anlamıyla (konuşmak, söz söylemek) aynıdır. Dinib-danışmamaq olumsuz şekli de yine susmak, konuşmamak, hiçbir şey söylememek, sükût etmek anlamındadır [2,640]. Fiilin konuşmak anlamıyla bağlantılı dindirilmə, dindirilmək, dindiriş, dinməməzlik gibi şekilleri de bulunmaktadır. Her ne kadar Azerbaycan Türkçesinin İzahlı Lügati almasa da bu fiilin sona ermek, bitmek, durmak anlamları da bulunmaktadır. Bazı ağızlarda nazal n ile de telaffuz edilen diñ- fiili rüzgârın veya yağmurun dinmesi, kesilmesi, durması

34 34 AHMET NAHMEDOV anlamındadır: Yel diñdi (Qazax); - Yağış diñdisə, dura:ñ, tüşə:ñ yola (Gədəbəy) [3,144]. Türkiye Türkçesinde din- kökünden oluşan fiiller genelde dinlenmek, rahatlamak, soluklanmak veya sona ermek, bitmek, durmak anlamındadır: dinmek (nsz) 1. Sona ermek, bitmek, durmak: Gözyaşlarım dindi, ferahladım, eski hayatıma kavuştum. Y.K. Beyatlı. 2. Kar ve yağmurun yağması, rüzgârın esmesi kesilmek veya durmak: Dinmiş lodosların uğultusu içinde / İstanbul u dinliyorum, gözlerim kapalı. - O.V. Kanık [21,534]. dinlenmek (I) (nsz) 1. Güç kazanmak için çalışmaya ara vermek, yorgunluğunu gidermek, soluklanmak, istirahat etmek: Pervin biraz dinlendikten sonra ayağa kalktı. - P. Safa 2. Bazı yiyecek ve içecekleri, tadını arttırma, kolay pişmesini sağlama vb. sebeplerle bir süre bekletmek [21,534]. Bunlardan din- fiiline bazı yapım ekleri getirilerek din-me, din-dir-mek, dindir-me gibi dinmek fiilinin 1. ve 2. anlamlarını yansıtan isim ve fiiller oluşturulmuştur. Yine aynı köke getirilen -ç isim-fiil ekiyle oluşmuş dinç (Gücü ve sağlık durumu yerinde, canlı, zinde, tendürüst, tüvana) kelimesine de yapım ekleri getirilerek din-ç-len-mek, din-ç-leş-me, din-c-el-me, din-c-el-mek, din-c-el-t-ici, din-cel-t-me, din-c-el-t-mek gibi bu defa dinlenmek (I) fiilinin 1. anlamına yakın isim ve fiiller yapılmıştır. Türkiye Türkçesinde daha fazla olumsuz şekliyle kullanılan tın- fiili anlam açısından Azerbaycan Türkçesindeki din- fiiline kısmen yakındır: tınmak, -ar (nsz) 1. Önemsemek, önem vermek, takmak. 2. Ses çıkarmak. tınmamak 1) önem vermemek, ilgilenmemek, aldırış etmemek: Adam hiç tınmadı, cıgarasından derin bir soluk aldı. A.İlhan. 2) ses çıkarmamak: Onun tınmadığını görünce elini boru yapıp bağırdı. H. Taner [21,1976]. Azerbaycan Türkçesinde dinlenmek, soluklanmak anlamlı fiil din- kökünden değil, bu kökten yapılmış dinc ismine isimden fiil yapım eki getirilerek türetilmiştir: din-c-əl- (Krş. bu ekle türetilmiş incel-, kökel-, çoxal- vb.). Fakat burada dinc al- > dincel- olasılığı da göz ardı edilmemelidir. Dincəlmək f İstirahətlə öz qüvvəsini berpa etmək, yorğunluğunu almaq, istirahət etmək, dincini almaq, rahatlanmaq [2,639]. Bu isme yapım ekleri getirilerek dincəldici, dincəliş, dincəlmə, dincəlməz, dincəltmə, dincəltmək, dincləşdirilmə, dincləşdirilmək, dincləşdirmə, dincləşdirmək, dincləşmə, dincləşmək, dinclik gibi isim ve fiiller türetilmiştir. Hepsi de dincəlmək le yakın anlamlardadır. Örneklerden de görüldüğü gibi, Azerbaycan ve Türkiye Türkçelerinde gerek din- fiili gerekse de bazı yapım ekleriyle genişletilmiş şekilleri, birincisinde konuşmak, söz söylemek ikincisinde ise sona ermek, bitmek veya rahatlamak, yorgunluğunu gidermek, soluklanmak gibi farklı anlamlara gelmektedir. Ulaşabildiğimiz diğer çağdaş Türk lehçeleri sözlüklerinde din-/tın- köklü fiillerin de, ileride bahsedeceğimiz susmak dışında, Türkiye Türkçesindeki din- ve dinlen- fiillerine yakın anlamlarda kullanıldığı görülmektedir.

35 AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE 35 Eski Türkçe ve Karahanlı dönemi metinlerinde tın hem isim hem de fiil olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır: Tın nefes, ruh : acun tını yılırdı (dünyanın nefesi / ruhu? ısındı) > tın al- 1.solumak, nefes almak [11,567]. Tın- 1. solumak, nefes almak: er uluq tındı (adam yüksek soludu), 2. dinlenmek: evinge kelip tüşti yattı tınıp (evine gelip yatarak dinlendi), 3. rahatlamak, huzura kavuşmak: qamuq tebrenür tındı yumdı közi (tüm canlılar rahatladı, gözünü kapattı), 4. durmak, bitmek, kesilmek: yıqla tınma (hiç durmadan ağla), yaqmur tındı (yağmur kesildi,dindi) [11,567]. Türkiye Türkçesindeki sona ermek, bitmek, durmak anlamlı dinmek ve yorgunluğunu gidermek, soluklanmak, istirahat etmek anlamlı dinlenmek fiillerinin bu kökten geldiği açıktır. Bu durumda ses çıkarmak, konuşmak anlamında kullanılan din- / tın- fiilinin kaynağının farklı olduğu düşünülebilir. Eski Uygur metinlerinde tıñ I ses ve tıñ II dinleme (Ol eligler qanlar ordusınta ol nom nomlaquluq orunta nom tıñqa yıqılqaylar. O hükümdar ve hanların ordugâhında, dinî sohbetlerin yapıldığı yerde, nom (hikaye) dinlemek için toplaşacaklar.) ve bundan türetilmiş tıñçı casus, haberci kelimesi bulunmaktadır. Kutadgu Bilig ve Dîvânu Lûgati t-türk te ise tıñıla- gürültü çıkarmak, ses çıkarmak, tıñla- dinlemek, kulak tutmak, kulak asmak, tıñlaş- birlikte dinlemek ve tıñlat- dinlemesini sağlamak fiilleri görülmektedir [11,568]. Dîvânu Lûgati t-türk te Kaşgarlı Mahmut durmak, kesilmek anlamlı tındı kelimesini açıklarken ilginç bir not düşmüştür: Oğuzlar, bir kimseye söz söyletmek istemedikleri zaman tınma derler. Bu, susma demektir; öbür Türkler tın derler, sus anlamınadır. Bunlar, tınma dedikleri zaman susma anlamı anlaşılır; Oğuzlar burada yanılmışlardır. [10,28]. Burada galiba bir baskı hatasıyla karşı karşıyayız. Aslında metindeki cümle şu şekilde okunmalıdır: Oğuzlar, bir kimseye söz söyletmek istemedikleri zaman tınma derler. Bu, sus demektir; öbür Türkler tın derler, sus anlamınadır. Bunlar, tınma dedikleri zaman susma anlamı anlaşılır; Oğuzlar burada yanılmışlardır. Örnekten de anlaşıldığı üzere, Oğuzlar tınma emir şeklini sus, konuşma anlamında kullanmışlar. Dolaysıyla, tın konuş!, fiil kökü de tın- konuşmak şeklinde olmalıdır. Konuşmak, söylemek, ses çıkarmak anlamlarıyla tın- / din- / dın- fiili 13.Yy. dan sonra Kıpçak ve Eski Oğuz (Anadolu) Türkçesi metinlerinde de görülmeye başlamıştır. Kıpçak Türkçesi Sözlüğü nde dın / dın- ve tın / tın- hem isim hem de fiil olarak bulunmaktadır: dın Nefes, soluk dın- Söylemek, ses çıkarmak [15,61]. tın (I) Sessiz, sakin tın (II) Zeka, ruh tın (III) Nefes, soluk tın- (I) Dinlenmek, istirahat etmek tın- (II) Susmak

36 36 AHMET NAHMEDOV tın- (III) Söylemek, ses çıkarmak tın- (IV) Alıkoymak, eğlendirmek, durdurmak tın- (V) Solumak, nefes almak tın- 1. Dinlenmek, istirahat etmek 2. Durmak, kımıldamamak [15,274]. Ayrıca dinlenmek, istirahat etmek anlamı için din-/tın-/dinlen-/tinlen- /tıñlan-/tiñlen- ; dinlemek anlamı için ise diñle-/tıñla-/düñle- şekilleri karşımıza çıkmaktadır. İlginçtir ki Et-Tuhfetü z-zekiyye Fi l-lügati t-türkiyye eserinde tınfiili hem susmak hem de söylemek, ses çıkarmak anlamında kullanıldığı gibi, Kitâbu Bulgatü l-müştâk Fî Lügati t-türk Ve l-kıfçak eserinde susmak için diñsüz ol- ve tiñtür- fiilleri kullanılmıştır [15,274]. Codex Cumanicus taki bazı kullanımlar da dikkate şayandır: tım : Sakin. tın : Sessiz, sakin. tın : Zekâ, ruh. tın-, (-ar) : Dinlenmek. tınç : Sakin, sükunet, huzur. tıngla-, (-r) : Dinlenmek. tınım : Huzur [13, ]. Bu farklı kullanım Eski Oğuz (Anadolu) Türkçesi metinlerinde de sıkça görülmektedir: Hurşid-Name (14. Yy.): 2714 Bu yolda yiynicek olma agır ol İşitme dınma (konuşma) dilsüz ol sagır ol 5616 Dilümle gerçi söylerdüm dinürdüm (konuşurdum) Hanun incindüginden incinürdüm 1074 Biri dimek yirinde hâmuş olmak Biri diñmek (susmak) yirinde söze gelmek 1075 Çü şimdi söz demidür diñmek (susmak) olmaz Agular yise kişi siñmek olmaz [19]. Süheyl ü Nev-Bahar (14. Yy.): 4019 Bakup surete sürer idi günin İşitmezdi hiç kimse ünin dının (sesini, sedasını) 2169 Bular dahı hiç dınmadı (konuşmadı, ses çıkarmadı) sizdiler Ki bulardan ataları söz diler 316 İvecekligi adet idinmegil Saña sormayınca sözi dinmegil (konuşma) 3481 Öküş gavga itdiler ü oñdılar Çü dün buçugı olıcak diñdiler (sakinleştiler, sustular) [17]. Kelile ve Dimne de (14. Yy.) sadece dinme- olumsuz şekli görülmektedir: Eger bende suç varmısadı, sizün şol dinmeyüb (konuşmayıp) durdugunuzçün sevindüm (70b/9) Kaçan Dimne bu kamusına cevab virdi, hazırlar ayruk dinmedi (konuşmadı) ve kimsene söz getürmedi (72a/14)

37 AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE 37 Pes duru vardı ve diñsüzlik mührin ol söyleyici dil ve agız üzerine urdı, hiç dinmedi (konuşmadı) durdı (227a/1-2) [16]. Tarama Sözlüğü ndeki örneklerde de aynı durum söz konusudur. Dın-/dinhem susmak hem de söz söylemek anlamındadır. Daha fazla dinme-/dınmaolumsuz şekilleri görülmektedir. Nazal ve normal n kullanımı düzensizdir. diñmek: Sakin olmak, sükût etmek, susmak (s.1163) Ne vaktın kim nevaht eyler rehavi Diñerler (susarlar) terk ederler sözü savı (Çengname, 15.Yy.) dınmak, (tınmak): ses çıkarmak, söz söylemek (s.1131) Emir-i Arap diş kısıp tınma (ses çıkarma, konuşma) ne söylerse söylesin, dedi. (Hamzaname, Yy.) Gördüğün dıñma (söyleme) gözden düşersin (Atalar sözü, 15. Yy.) Döndü kurbağa haline halim Ne olur tınmasam ne hod halim Su girer ağzıma tınar olsam (konuşursam) Tınmasam hod helâk eder beni gam (Ruşeni Divanı, 15. Yy.) dınmamak, (tınmamak): Ses çıkarmamak, söylememek (s ) Zikreyledik elbette gerek idi, hayâ edip dınmamak (konuşmamak) olmaz (Münebbih-ür-Râkıdîn, Yy.) Ger sözü hâlis gümüşten kılasın Hâlis altun tınmamaktır (konuşmamaktır) bilesin (Vahdetname, 15. Yy.) Baş aşağa kılıp edep birle otura, ana söylerlerse cevap vere, söylemezlerse tınmaya (konuşmaya). (Tefsir-i Ebilleys Tercümesi, YY) Bir dahi epsem oldu, ayruk tınmadı (konuşmadı). (Tac-ül-Edeb, 15. Yy.) Bu fiilin çeşitli yapım ekleriyle genişletilmiş şekilleri de söylemek, konuşmak, ses çıkarmak veya bunlara yakın anlamdadır: diñdürmek: söyletmek (s.1161). Abuşka Lügati bu kelime için tindürüb Söyledüb demekdir, amma burada sakin eyleyüb emin idüb dinlendürüb demekdir [1,192]. açıklamasını yapmaktadır ki bu durum, sözlüğün yazıldığı dönemde Çağataycadan farklı olarak Anadolu sahasında bu fiilin söyletmek, bir şeyler demesini sağlamak anlamında kullanıldığını göstermektedir. diñici, (diñücü): Fısıltı ile söylenen sözü sezdirmeyerek dinleyip sahibine ileten (s.1161). Eski Uygur metinlerinde tıñçı ve tıñçı savçı şekilleriyle casus, ajan anlamında geçmektedir [11,568]. diñi diñlemek, (diñicilik eylemek, din dinlemek, dinü dinlemek): İki kişinin hafifçe konuştuğu sözlere kulak vermek. M.Ergin Dede Korkut Destanlarında geçen diñ diñle- bileşik fiilini Kapıdan veya bacadan gizlice içeride konuşulanları dinlemek, gizliden kapıları dinlemek, gizliden içeriyi dinlemek, gıybet ve dedikodulara kulak vermek, diñ kelimesini ise Yavaş sesle konuşulan, gizli konuşulan şey, gıybet olarak açıklamaktadır. [9,91-

38 38 AHMET NAHMEDOV 92]. Bu fiilin Anadolu sahasındaki konuşmak, söz söylemek anlamlarını göz önünde bulundurursak din-/diñ- kökünden yapılmış diñi/dini/dinü isimlerinin yavaş, gizli konuşulan şey anlamına gelebileceğini ve diñi diñlemek şeklinin daha doğru olduğunu düşünebiliriz. İleride değineceğimiz Altayistik verileri bu fikrimizi destekleyecek ipuçları içermektedir. dıñsuz (tınsuz): sessiz, sâkit, sâkin (s.1134) dıñsuzın: sessizce, yavaş sesle, hafiyyen (s.1135) [20]. Çağatay sahasında tın- fiilinin hep dinlenmek, yorgunluğunu gidermek, rahata huzura kavuşmak anlamında kullanıldığı görülüyor: Ulustın tınmadım ömrümde hergiz lahzaî Babür Meger ölsem bu âlem ehlidin bolgay min âsude [5,134]. Gurbette ayak birle beden tınmas lik Yüz şükr ki tinçdür kulag birle köngül [5,256]. Nefes, soluk, ruh, ses, gürültü, dinleme vb. anlamları içeren tın / tin / tıñ isim kökü ile konuşmak, susmak, bitmek, dinlenmek, solumak vb. anlamlara gelen din-/dın-/tin-/tın-/ diñ- / dıñ- / tıñ- fiil kökü ve bunlardan türemiş kelimelerin tek bir kökten geleceği şüpheli gibi gözükmektedir. Altay Dillerinin Etimolojik Sözlüğü nde [14] Altay dillerindeki benzer kelimelere dayanarak yapılan karşılaştırmayla gerek Ana Altayca gerekse de Ana Diller (proto languages) için kurulmuş (reconstruction) kelime kökleri arasında dördü dikkati çekmektedir: *çiunu blood; spirit, breath (kan; ruh, soluk): Tung. *cun-; Mong. *çisu; Türk. *dın; Jpn. *ti PTung. *cun- pulse,vein (nabız, kan damarı) PMong. *çisu blood (kan) PTurk. *dın 1 spirit, breath 2 rest 3 to rest 4 to pant 5 to breathe 6 quiet 7 sultriness (1 ruh, soluk 2 dinlenme 3 dinlenmek 4 nefesi kesilmek, nefes nefese kalmak 5 solumak 6 rahat, huzur 7 bunaltıcılık): ETü tın 1; Karahan. tın 1, tın 2; Türk. tin 1, din-le- 3; Gag. din-ne-n- 3; Azer. tınç-ıx- 4, dinç 2; Türkm. dınç 2; Halaç tinç 6; OTü tin 3; Özb. tin 1, tin- 3; Uyg. tin 1, tin- 3; Krm. tın 5, tınc 2; Tatar tın 1; Başk. tın 1, tın-sı-w 7; Kırg. tın 1, tın- 3; Kazak tın-ıs 1,2; KBalk. tin 1, tın-ç-ı- to rot, addle (çürümek, bozulmak), tın-ç-ay- 3, tın-ım 2; KKalp. tın 1, tın- 3; Kum. tın-iş 1, tın-ç-ay- 3; Nogay tın-ıs 1, tın-ş-ıq 4, tın-ş-a-y- 3; Hakas tın 1, tın- 5, tın-a-n- 3; Şor tın 1, tın- 5, tın-a-n- 3; Oyrat tın 1,2, tın- 5; Tuva tın 1, tın- 5; Tofa tın 1, tın- 5; Çuv. çəm 1; Yakut tın 1, tın- 5; Dolg. tın 1, tın- 5; PJpn *ti blood (kan) Eski Japonca ruh ve güç anlamları da bulunmaktadır. Yazarlar Oğuz lehçelerindeki d>t değişiminin Kıpçak etkisi olduğunu ve kelimenin kökünün *d- olarak kurulması (reconstruction) gerektiğini vurguluyorlar. (Volum 8/1, s.401 Not: Örneklerin karşısındaki rakamlar bunların anlam sıralamasındaki yerini göstermektedir.)

39 AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE 39 *ťima (low) noise, sound, to make noise (gürültü, ses, gürültü çıkarmak): Tung. *tim-; Mong. *çimeqe; Türk. *Tiñ(mi); Jpn. *tamar-; Kor. *tamır- PTung. *tim- 1 calm (of weather) 2 calm, silent 3 to speak silently, move lips 4 night silence (in the forest) [1 sessizlik (hava için) 2 konuşmamak, susmak 3 sessizce konuşmak, söylenmek 4 sessizlik (gece ormanda)] PMong. *çimeqe sound, noise, noisy (ses, gürültü, gürültülü) PTurk. *Tiñ(mi) 1 sound 2 to talk 3 to grumble ( 1 ses 2 konuşmak 3 mırıldanmak, söylenmek; homurdanmak): Karahan. [tınma- do not speak (konuşmamak)]; Türk. tın- 2, Osm. tın-, dın- 2; Azer. din- 2; OT (OKıp.) tın- 2; Tat. tın-sız wordless (sessiz); Hakas tәmel- 3; Tuva diñmi rumble, thunder (gürleme, gök gürültüsü); Çuv. çәn- 2, çәm-sәr wordless (sessiz); Yakut tiñiy- to produce loud thumping sounds ( yüksek sesle konuşmak) PJpn. *tamar- to be silent (susmak) Günümüz Japoncasında damar- PKor. *tamır- to close the mouth, to be silent (ağzını kapamak, susmak) Günümüz Korecesinde tamul- Yazarlar, Clauson un bu fiili tın nefes kökü ile açıklamasında bir zorlama olduğunu da vurgulamaktalar (Volum 8/2, s ). *tium(k)u silent, calm (sessiz, suskun; sakin): Tung. *duñk-; Mong. *düñ; Turk. *dım- PTung. *duñk 1 dark, sullen 2 to bow the head 3 to knit the brows 4 to bow the head and slumber 5 to become silent, calm 6 quiet, peaceful (1 koyu, somurtkan 2 boyun eğmek 3 kaşlarını çatmak 4 başını aşağı eğerek uyuklamak 5 sakinleşmek, rahatlamak 6 sessiz, sakin olmak) PMong. *düñ- to become dull, murky (of sky), sullen, melancholic (gök yüzünün kapanması, sakin, düşünceli olmak) PTurk. *dım- 1 to be silent 2 silently (1 susmak 2 sessiz, suskun): Tükm. dım- 1; OTü. tın- 1; Tat. tön-köş silent person (sessiz kişi); Başk. dım- 1; Kırg. tim, tım 2; Kaz. tım 2; KKalp. tım 2; Hak. tımıl- 1, tım 2; Oyr. tım- 1, tım 2; Çuv. tamal- 2 (Volum 8/2, s ) Günümüz Türk Lehçelerinin hemen hemen hepsinde bulunan dinle- fiili ile ilgili kuruluş (reconstruction) örneklerini de fikir oluşturması için aşağıya almayı uygun gördük: *çıñ V to listen, consider (dinlemek, düşünmek): Tung. *çiñ-; Mong. *çiñla-; Turk. *dıñla-/*diñle- PTung. *ciñ- 1 to understand 2 attentive, conscious (1 anlamak 2 dikkatli, bilinçli) PMong. *çiñla- to listen (dinlemek) PTurk. *dıñla- / *diñle- 1 to listen 2 to hear 3 to consider, meditate (1 dinlemek 2 duymak 3 düşünmek, düşünceye dalmak): ETü tıñla- 1; Karahan. tıñla- 1; Türk. dinle- 1; Azer. dinlә 1; Türkm. diñle 1; OTü diñle-, tıñla- 1; Uyg. tiñla- 2; Krım. dinle-, tıñla- 2; Tat. tıñma- 1, Başk. tıñla- 1; Kırg. tıñşa- 1; Kazak tıñda- 1; KBalk. tıñla- 1; KKalp. tıñla- 1; Kum. tıñla- 1; Nog. tıñla- 1; SUyg. tinna- 2; Hak. tıñna- 1; Oyr. tıñda- 1; Tuva dıñna- 2; Tof. tıñna- 2; Çuv. çıñla- 3

40 40 AHMET NAHMEDOV Yazarlara göre *diñle- gövdesi *dıñ ( ETü tıñ, Türkm. diñ akıl, fikir, düşünce ) isminden türemiştir (Volum 8/1, s ). Görüldüğü üzere, konuşmak (din-/tın-), dinlenmek (din-/tın-), susmak (tın- /tım-/tim-) ve dinlemek (dinle-/diñle-/tıñla-) fiillerinin farklı köklerden türemiş olma olasılığı büyüktür. Tın isim kökünün ilk anlamının nefes ve anlam genişlemesiyle dinlenme, rahat, huzur (zıt anlamlısı aruqluq yorgunluk ) ve ruh, hayat (krş. Eski Japoncada ti kan; ruh, güç) anlamlarında kullanılması fikirlerine katılmak mümkün. Bu durumda eş sesli tın- fiilinin de nefes almak, solumak ve dinlenmek, yorgunluğunu gidermek, dolayısıyla rahatlamak, huzura kavuşmak anlamlarının olması doğaldır [8,512]. Daha önce kaydettiğimiz gibi, bazı araştırmacılar durmak, kesilmek (yağmur, rüzgar vb.) anlamlarını tın nefes köküyle ilişkilendirmenin zorlama olduğunu düşünseler de, yorgun birisinin dinlenmek, soluklanmak için oturması, yatmasına benzetilerek böyle bir anlam genişlemesine uğraması mantıklı gibi gözüküyor (Azerbaycan Türkçesinde rüzgarın kesilmesi için Külek yatdı. şeklinin kullanılması gibi.). Tabi, ileride değineceğimiz tın/tım (sakin, sessiz) ve tın-/tım-/dım- (susmak) isim ve fiilleri de durmak, kesilmek anlamları için düşünülebilir. Kaşgarlı nın Oğuzların sus, konuşma anlamında tınma emir şeklini kullandığını kaydetmesi, eski tın- (konuşmak, ses çıkarmak) fiilinin varlığını göstermektedir. Eski Türkçedeki tıñ ses isminden, aynen tın nefes örneğinde olduğu gibi, tıñ- ses çıkarmak, konuşmak fiilinin oluşması da mantıklı 1. Fakat bu durumda yazılı metinlerde bu fiil nazal n (tıñ-) ile yazılmalıydı. 13. Yy. sonrası Kıpçak ve Oğuz metinlerinde ise bu konuda bir tutarsızlık görülmektedir. Gerek dinlenmek ve rahatlamak gerekse de konuşmak ve susmak anlamlı fiiller hem nazal hem de normal n ile yazılmaktadır. Yukarıda örneklerini verdiğimiz Eski Oğuz (Anadolu) Türkçesi metinlerinde din-/tın- konuşmak ; diñ- susmak ; dinme-/dınma-/tınma- /dıñma- konuşmamak ; diñdür- konuşturmak, konuşmasını sağlamak ; dın ses, diñ/diñi/dini gizlice konuşulan şey, dıñsuz/tınsuz sessiz, dıñsuzın sessizce, yavaş sesle gibi kelimelerin kendi içinde bile farklılık gösterdiği dikkati çekmektedir. Bu da normal n li tın (nefes) ve türevleri ile nazal n li tıñ (ses) ve türevlerinin zamanla bir etkileşim içine girdiğini göstermesi açısından önemlidir. Aynı tutarsızlık susmak anlamlı tın- fiili için de geçerlidir. Bu fiil Çağdaş lehçelerde daha fazla dım-/tım- şeklinde bulunmaktadır (Türkmen. dım-, Başk. dım-, Oyrat. tım-, Haks. tımıl-, Çuvaş. tamal-). Aynı zamanda sessiz, suskun anlamlı tım/tim ismi de görülüyor (Kırg. tım, tim, Kazak., KKalp., Hakas., Oyrat. tım ). İlginçtir ki Tungus lehçelerinden Evencede timne- yavaşça konuşmak, söylenmek (krş. diñ, diñi yavaş, gizli konuşulan şey ), Japoncada damar- susmak, Korecede tamır-/tamul- susmak (krş. Haks. tımıl-, Çuvaş. tamal- susmak ) anlamındadır. Bu durum Ana Türkçede susmak anlamlı özel bir fiilin (*dım-) ola- 1 Azerbaycan Türkçesindeki danışmak fiilinin tıñış- karşılıklı konuşmak (Türkiye Türkçesinde anlam genişlemesiyle görüş almak, istişare etmek ) şeklinden geldiği düşünülebilir. Kelime kökündeki ı nın nazal n nin etkisiyle genişleyerek a ya dönüşmesi mümkün.

41 AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE 41 bileceği görüşünü doğurmuştur [14, ]. Aslında, aynı kelimenin iki zıt anlamı karşılaması durumu da Türkçe için hiç yabancı değildir: taban tavan, kök gök, tepe dip (ETü. töpü - tüp) [6, ]. Yani, aynı tın- kökünün hem susmak hem de konuşmak (veya tın ses ve sessizlik ) için kullanılmış olması fikri de göz ardı edilmemeli. Sadece dinle- fiili eski metinlerde de günümüz Türk lehçelerinde de hep nazal n ile yazılmaktadır (Alfabelerinde bu ses için özel işaret bulunmayan Türkiye ve Azerbaycan Türkçeleri hariç.). Bu da muhtemelen tıñla- fiil gövdesinin çok daha eski zamanlarda oluşması ile ilgilidir (krş. ETü katıqdı tıñla adamakıllı dinle) [12,65]. Eski Uygur metinlerinde geçen nom tıñqa yıqılqaylar (nom dinlemeye yığışacaklar) örneğinden de anlaşılacağı gibi, tıñla- fiil gövdesi tıñ dinleme isim köküne -la yapım eki getirilerek oluşturulmuştur. Göktürk Abidelerinde aynı cümlede geçen eşit- fiili ile (Bu sabımın edgüti eşit katıqdı tıñla. - Bu sözümü iyice işit, adamakıllı dinle) [12,65] Karahanlı metinlerinde eşit tıñla şeklinde bir ikileme oluşturmuştur (Negü ter eşit tıñla bilgi batıq. Derin bilgileri olanın ne dediğini dinle) [11,185]. Clauson soru işareti ve büyük olasılıkla notuyla bu kelimenin Çince t ing işitmek, duymak fiilinden geldiğini söylemektedir. Değil Göktürkler döneminde daha sonraki dönemlerde de başka bir dilden bir fiil kökünü alarak ve ona isimden fiil yapım eki getirerek yeni bir fiil türetmenin örneklerinin görülmediği düşünülürse, Clauson un yanıldığı açıktır [8,522]. Altay Dillerinin Etimolojik Sözlüğü nün yazarlarının bu fiilin ETü tıñ ve Türkm. dıñ akıl, fikir, düşünce isminden geldiğini iddia etmesine yukarıda değinmiştik. Fakat hiçbir kaynakta bu anlamlara rastlamadık. Sadece Kuman Lehçesi Sözlüğü nde tın: Zekâ, ruh örneği bulunmaktadır ki bu da zeka dan ziyade ruh anlamındadır ve bütün Kıpçak metinlerinde normal n ile yazılmaktadır. Yeniden konuşmak, ses çıkarmak anlamlı din- fiiline dönecek olursak, fikrimizce, tıñ ses kökünden oluşmuş tıñ- fiili ilk zamanlar yavaş sesle konuşmak anlamında ortaya çıkmış (krş. Evence timne-, Oğuz. diñ, diñi), daha sonraları Oğuzlar bunu konuşmak, diğer Türkler susmak anlamında kullanmışlardır. Dinlenmek, solumak anlamlı tın- fiili ile karıştırılmasından dolayı hem normal hem nazal şekilleri ortaya çıkmış; Oğuz ve Kıpçak boylarının bir arada yaşadığı sahalarda (Doğu Avrupa, Mısır) d~t, n~m ses değişimleriyle hem konuşmak hem susmak için kullanılmıştır. Türkiye Türkçesinde tın- fiilindeki d~t değişimi İstanbul ağzına Kıpçak etkisiyle açıklanabilir. Azerbaycan Türkçesindeki din- (<tıñ-) fiili Eski Oğuz (Anadolu) sahasındaki konuşmak anlamını korumuştur.

42 42 AHMET NAHMEDOV KAYNAKÇA 1. Abuşka Lugatı veya Çağatay Sözlüğü, Haz. Besim Atalay, Ankara, Azərbaycan Dilinin İzahlı Lüğəti, I. Cilt. Bakı, Azərbaycan Dialektoloji Lüğəti, C.1, Ankara, Azerbaycan Edebiyatı Tarihi, 2. Cilt, Bakü, Babür Divanı (Gramer-Metin-Sözlük-Tıpkıbasım), Haz. Dr. Bilal Yücel, AKM Yayınları, Ankara, Baranoğlu, Şahin, Çeştepe Adı Hakkında.- Turkish Studies, Volume 4/3, Spring Başlangıçtan Günümüze Kadar Türkiye Dışındaki Türk Edebiyatları Antolojisi, 4. Cilt, Azerbaycan Edebiyatı, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, Clauson, Sir Gerard, An Etimological Dictionary of Pre-Thirteent-Century Turkish. Oxford, Dede Korkut Kitabı II, İndeks-Gramer, Haz. Prof. Dr. Muharrem Ergin, TDK Yayınları, 3. Baskı, Ankara, Divanü Lugat-it-Türk Tercümesi, Çev. Besim Atalay, C.II, Ankara, Drevnetyurkskiy Slovar (Eski Türkçenin Sözlüğü), Leningrad, Ergin, Prof. Dr. Muharrem, Orhun Abideleri, Boğaziçi Yayınları, 20. Baskı, İstanbul, Grönbech K. Kuman Lehçesi Sözlüğü. Codex Cumanicus un Türkçe Sözlük Dizini, Çev. Prof. Dr. Kemal Aytaç, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, Handbook of Oriental Studies. Central Asia. Edited by Denis Sinor, Nicola Di Cosmo. Etimological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Volume 8/1-2. Sergei Starostin, Anna Dybo, Oleg Mudrak. Leiden-Boston Kıpçak Türkçesi Sözlüğü, 2. Baskı, TDK Yayınları, Ankara, Kul Mesud, Kelile ve Dimne. İstanbul Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi Laleli Bölümünde 1897 numarada kayıtlı yazma nüsha. 17. Mes ud Bin Ahmed, Süheyl ü Nev-Bahar, İnceleme-Metin-Sözlük, Haz. Cem Dilçin, Ankara, Məlikzadə,İsi, Günəşli payız, Bakı, Şeyhoğlu Mustafa, Hurşîd-Nâme (Hurşîd ü Ferahşâd), İnceleme-Metin-Sözlük- Konu Dizini, Haz. Dr. Hüseyin Ayan, Erzurum, Tarama Sözlüğü, Cilt 2, TDK Yayınları, Ankara, Türkçe Sözlük, 10. Baskı, TDK Yayınları, Ankara, 2005

43 AZERBAYCAN TÜRKÇESİNDE din- FİİLİNİN TARİHÎ GELİŞİMİ ÜZERİNE 43 Ахмет Нахмедов Об историческом развитии глагола «din-» в азербайджанском языке Резюме Глагол «din-», используемый в азербайджанском языке в значении «говорить, звучать», встречается с различными фонетическими вариантами в письменных памятниках, начиная с Кашгари. По всей вероятности, глагол «tıñ-», образованный от корня «tıñ» (звук), вначале имел значение «говорить тихо», позже огузы использовали его как «говорить», другие тюрки в значении «молчать». Ввиду того, что глагол «tın-» часто путали со словами «отдыхать, переводить дух» (dinlenmek, solumak), появились его как назальные, так и нормальные формы; на территориях, где совместно проживали огузские и кыпчакские племена, эти слова со звуковыми изменениями d~t, n~m употреблялись в значениях «говорить» либо «молчать». Звуковое изменение d~t в глаголе «tın-» турецкого языка объясняется воздействием кыпчакского диалекта на стамбульский. Глагол «din-» в азербайджанском языке сохранил свое значение «говорить», которое использовалось как «tıñ-» у огузских племен на территории Анатолии. Ключевые слова: азербайджанский язык, огузы, кыпчаки, турецкий язык, звуковые изменения. On the Historical Development of Azerbaijani verb din Abstract Ahmet Nahmedov The verb din- which means speak in Azerbaijani, can be seen in various phonetic legendary stories in written monuments beginning with Mahmud of Kashghari. The tıñverb which probably consisted of tıñ (sound) root, contained the meaning of speaking in a low voice in early times. Later on, the Oghuz Turks used it as speak whereas the other Turkish tribes used it as be quiet. As it is mixed up with the tın- verb (meaning; to rest, to breathe) both normal and nasal forms have arisen; in areas where Oghuz and Kipchaks lived together, it was used for both to speak and to be quiet with the sound changes of d~t and n~m. The d~t change of the tın- verb in modern Turkish can be explained with the Kipchak effect on İstanbul dialect. The din- (<tıñ-) verb in Azerbaijani conserved the meaning of to speak in Old Oghuz (Anatolia) area. Key words: Azerbaijani language, Oghuzs, Kipchaks, Turkish language, sound changes.

44 TÜRKOLOGİYA TARİX VƏ ETNOQRAFİYA ИСТОРИЯ И ЭТНОГРАФИЯ HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY АЛЕКСАНДР НЕСТЕРОВ (Россия) * ЮЛИЯ ИВАНОВА (Россия) АХЧА КОЮНЛУ КАДЖАРЫ: ИРАВАНСКОЕ БЕГЛЕРБЕКСТВО В ПЕРВОЙ ТРЕТИ XVII ВЕКА Резюме В статье анализируется формирование территории Ираванского (Чухур- Саадского) беглербекства в первой трети XVII века. Особую роль в этом процессе играли каджары ахча-коюнлу ветвь тюркского огузского племени каджаров, переселившихся на Южный Кавказ в XV веке. В результате деятельности Амиргуна хана каджара, возглавлявшего племя и беглербекство в первой четверти XVII века, сформировалась основная территория ханства и началось формирование региональной этнополитической идентичности его населения. Ключевые слова: Чухур-Саад, Ираванское ханство, Чухурсаадское беглербекство, Амиргуна хан, каджары ахча коюнлу. В начале XVII века в ходе османско-сефевидских войн территории Южного Кавказа неоднократно переходили от Сефевидского государства к Османской империи и обратно. Не был исключением и Чухур-Саад территория, на которой в XVIII веке сформировались Ираванское (Ереванское) и Нахичеванское ханства, а также ряд примыкающих небольших владений. Чухур-Саад (как отдельная территориально-административная единица) был зафиксирован еще в рамках огузской племенной конфедерации Кара- Коюнлу в начале XV века; по традиции, его первым правителем был эмир Саад, бек племени саадлу. В рамках государства Сефевидов, созданного шахом Исмаилом I ( ), область Чухур-Саад была преобразована в * Россия, Уральский федеральный университет, Уральский гуманитарный институт, проф. [email protected] Россия, Уральский федеральный университет, Уральский гуманитарный институт, доц. [email protected]

45 АХЧА КОЮНЛУ КАДЖАРЫ: ИРАВАНСКОЕ БЕГЛЕРБЕКСТВО В ПЕРВОЙ ТРЕТИ XVII ВЕКА 45 беглербекство, объединившее ряд регионов Западного Азербайджана (это территориально-административное образование часто именуется также Реванским / Ираванским / Ереванским ханством или беглербекством по названию города и крепости, где располагалась резиденция правителя региона) [9, 324]. Османские завоевания последней четверти XVI века привели к тому, что основное тюркско-огузское население региона племена устаджлу, байят, румлу и аллаут откочевали на юго-восток, беглербекство было ликвидировано, а на территорию вновь созданного вилайета Османской империи были переселены тюрки-османы из Анатолии. Сохранилось в регионе и местное христианское население, так называемые «армяне», что указывало прежде всего на их конфессиональную принадлежность к Армянской Апостольской Церкви [8, ]. В годах территория Чухур-Саада была отвоевана сефевидским шахом Аббасом I, и основным населением региона стали переселенные туда огузские племена каджаров ветви ахча коюнлу [9, 325]. Источники по истории и географии Чухур-Саада начала XVII века довольно многочисленны, хотя и содержат в основном одностороннюю информацию сведения о событиях, чаще всего связанных с военными действиями на данной территории. Следует отметить, что беглербекство Чухур-Саад упоминается в ряде источников, написанных на персидском и армянском языках и частично переведенных на русский язык. В настоящее время на русском языке опубликованы полные или частичные тексты «Книги историй» Аракела Даврижеци [1], «Хроники» Закария Канакерци [3], «Джамбр» Симеона Ереванци [11], «Краткой истории страны Агванской» Есаи Хасан- Джалаляна [2] «Истории» османского автора Ибрахима Эфенди Печеви [4], «Хроники воскрешения царей» Малик Шах-Хусайна Систани [5], а также ряд других исторических текстов. Особое значение для изучения территории Чухур-Саада имеет «Книга путешествия» османского автора XVII века Эвлия Челеби, который проехал через территорию беглербекства и дал описание региона с кратким историческим очерком [12]. Большое значение для исследования истории и географии региона имеет сочинение Искандера Мунши «Мироукрашающая история шаха Аббаса» [13]. Тем не менее необходимо отметить, что источников для исследования географии Чухур-Саадского беглербекства явно недостаточно. Отдельные сохранившиеся документы, имеющие отношение к территориальным проблемам Чухур-Саада времен Амиргуна хана, лишь незначительно дополняют картину, сложившуюся в результате исследования нарративных источников. Каджары одно из тюркских (огузских) племен, традиционно считающееся пришедшим в Переднюю Азию в период монгольских завоеваний XIII века. В начале XV века эмир Тимур переселил каджаров из Северной Сирии на Южный Кавказ, где каджары расселились в регионе Иравана и Гянджи. В XVI веке каджары были одним из семи кызылбашских племен, ставших военной опорой первых Сефевидов. Шах Аббас I предоставил каджарам несколько территорий, где каджары и расселились: основная часть племени бы-

46 46 АЛЕКСАНДР НЕСТЕРОВ, ЮЛИЯ ИВАНОВА ла размещена в районе Астрабада (в том числе ахча коюнлу каджары), меньшие части поселились в районе Мерва и в Карабахе в Западном Азербайджане (зияд оглу каджары). В 1603 году сефевидский шахиншах Абу-л-Музаффар шах Аббас I Великий ( ) начал активные военные действия против войск Османской империи на Южном Кавказе. В первые же месяцы похода был отвоеван Тебриз исторический центр Иранского Азербайджана, затем была взята крепость Нахичевань, и войска Сефевидов приступили к осаде крепости Реван (Ираван, ныне Ереван). По данным Ибрахима Печеви, осада продолжалась 9 месяцев и 10 дней (мнение Эвлия Челеби о том, что осада крепости продолжалась только семь дней, явно ошибочно [12, 151]); в конечном итоге Ереван был взят [5, 304; 9, 325]. После завоевания Ревана / Иравана шах Аббас I считал целесообразным передать управление этими землями каджарскому хану, да и значительная часть каджаров заселяла территорию, непосредственно примыкавшую к завоеванным владениям с востока. Под властью каджарских ханов Чухур-Саад оставался вплоть до нового османского завоевания в 1635 году [7, ]. Правителем занятой крепости и прилегающих территорий был назначен Амиргуна хан каджар из каджаров ахча коюнлу по прозвищу «Сары Арслан» («Рыжий лев») [1, 54; 6, 521] (прозвище хану было присвоено самим шахом Аббасом [5, 314]). Удивительно, ни один из историков не указывает, какие конкретно территории передал шах Аббас под управление Амиргуна хану. Очевиден только факт, что Амиргуна хан получил в управление собственно город и крепость Реван (Ереван) и прилегающие территории. Ереван находился в сфере ответственности Амиргуна хана, и в первую очередь хан начал отстраивать крепость [3, 70]: территория в ходе войны была полностью опустошена, а крепость разрушена (Ибрахим Эфенди Печеви писал, что «шах разрушил крепость Реван до основания» [4, 80]). На некоторое время под контроль Амиргуна хана был передан и вилайет Гянджи [1, 59], но город Гянджу ему взять не удалось, и достаточно скоро (уже в 1606 году) правителем Гянджи оказывается Аллахверди хан, затем Мухаммад хан, и власть Амиргуна хана на Гянджу более не распространялась (тем более, что правителями Карабахского беглербекства, центром которого исторически была Гянджа, были представители другой ветви каджаров Зияд-оглу). Деятельность первого беглербека восстановленного Чухурсаадского беглербекства (новое территориальное образование чаще стали называть: Эриванским, Ираванским, Ереванским ханством) Амиргуна хана каджара достойна отдельного исследования. Именно ему принадлежит заслуга формирования автономного государственного образования на землях Западного Азербайджана, основным населением которого стали переселенные на земли данного региона тюркские племена каджаров (их уделом стал Чухур-Саад).

47 АХЧА КОЮНЛУ КАДЖАРЫ: ИРАВАНСКОЕ БЕГЛЕРБЕКСТВО В ПЕРВОЙ ТРЕТИ XVII ВЕКА 47 Армянский хронист XVII века Закарий Канакерци отмечает, что Амиргуна хан был «мужем храбрым и смелым, доблестным в битвах, неустрашимым и безбоязненным» [3, 70]. Практически во всех хрониках отмечается его активная строительная деятельность. Настроенный же резко против Сефевидов историк Аракел Даврижеци считает главным деянием Амиргуна хана переселение им значительной части населения Ираванской области в глубь Ирана [1, 40]. В ряде исторических исследований делается попытка обосновать этнический характер переселенческой политики шаха Аббаса и Амиргуна хана: предполагается, что эта политика была направлена исключительно против христианского, то бишь армянского населения области. В то же время даже в труде Аракела Даврижеци можно обнаружить сообщение, что «шах приказал под страхом меча, смерти и плена выселить [жителей] отовсюду, куда только они могли добраться, изгнать их и не оставить ни единой живой души, будь то христианин или магометанин, согласный [на переселение] или несогласный или нарушитель приказа царя» [1, 62]. Таким образом, политика сефевидского правительства была направлена на обеспечение безопасности завоеванной области: шах Аббас не без оснований предполагал, что покоренное население может действовать против сефевидской армии в пользу Османского государства. Переселенческая политика не могла не вызвать сопротивления местного населения, поэтому гг. стали временем не только военного, но и социального конфликта в регионе. Наиболее известным конфликтом стало движение, возглавленное Мехлу-баба, выходцем из Гянджи, и направленное против иранской власти в ханстве. Восстание было беспощадно подавлено Амиргуна ханом. Амиргуна хан вел активные работы по реорганизации экономической жизни формирующегося ханства. Практически все хронисты свидетельствуют, что именно при Амиргуна хане была отстроена Ираванская крепость. Закарий Канакерци писал: «Сначала принялся он строить крепость, затем дворцы и виноградники, цветники и сады, рыть каналы и умножать [количество] воды. В некоторых местах облегчил он также налоги и снял тяжкое бремя с выи простолюдинов. Правда, он увеличил сухра, то есть барщину. Увеличил он барщину потому, что, как сказали мы, занимался строительством Но хотя и тяжела была барщина, однако хан давал хлеб работавшим на барщине, ибо был он милосерден. Напекши много хлеба, он, нагрузив лошадей, отправлялся туда, обходил поля и раздавал хлеб тем, кто работал там. Поэтому ашуги сложили и пели хвалебные песни о его щедрости. И так жил он, благоустраивая страну» [3, 70]. В войне против грузин Амиргуна хан был в 1624 г. ранен и возвратился в Эриванскую крепость. Последние годы жизни хана остаются во многом загадочными. Неизвестна даже точная дата смерти хана. Аракел Даврижеци относит смерть Амиргуна хана к 1624 году, Закарий Канакерци к 1625 году, автор хроники «Тарих-и аламара-йи Аббаси» Искандар Мунши к 1628 году.

48 48 АЛЕКСАНДР НЕСТЕРОВ, ЮЛИЯ ИВАНОВА Столь же неясной остается причина смерти хана. В источниках зафиксированы различные версии: смерть хана от раны; убийство, организованное сыном хана Тахмасп Кули ханом; убийство, совершенное по повелению шаха Аббаса. Оснований для предпочтения той или иной из версий в настоящее время не имеется. Можно только с достоверностью утверждать, что в 1628 г. беглербеком Иравана был сын Амиргуна хана Тахмасп Кули хан, который оставался на этом посту вплоть до нового захвата города османскими войсками в 1636 г. Интересно отметить, что многие историки того времени не делали разницы между отцом и сыном Амиргуна ханом и Тахмасп Кули ханом, считая, что на протяжении всего периода гг. беглербекством управлял Амиргуна хан [1; 4]. Историки отмечают, что Тахмасп Кули хан «имел красивую внешность, большие глаза, тонкие брови, широкий лоб, широкие плечи, маленький рот и мелкие зубы, был приятен в беседе и сладкоречив, справедлив и правосуден, правдолюбив и беспристрастен». Его деятельность оказалась продолжением деятельности Амиргуна хана: шла последовательная работа по административной организации ханства и обороне его территории от внешних врагов. Среди наиболее существенных мероприятий, предпринятых Тахмасп Кули ханом, была организация переписи населения, возложенная на ближайшего советника хана Аслан агу. Результаты переписи показали, что мусульманское население, свободное от большинства налогов, составляет примерно три четверти населения ханства. Около четверти населения ханства составляли христиане; в то же время Тахмасп Кули хан, в соответствии с решениями шахов Аббаса I и Сефи I ( ), продолжал политику выселения христианского населения региона вглубь Ирана. Причиной этого были, во-первых, опасения хана, подозревавшего местных христиан в симпатии к более веротерпимой Османской империи, во-вторых, продолжавшиеся войны с царями грузинских государств христианами по религиозной принадлежности. Тахмасп Кули хан был одним из лучших сефевидских полководцев, и ему были предоставлены широкие полномочия для ведения военных действий в период продолжавшейся войны с Османской державой. Хану удалось отбить несколько вторжений османских армий на территорию ханства; он сам предпринял попытку захватить Карс, но эта попытка не удалась. Тем не менее, Тахмасп Кули хан последовательно расширял владения ханства за счет сопредельных османских и грузинских территорий, призывая на новопокоренные земли каджарские племена. Его активность вызвала беспокойство центрального правительства Османской империи, и в 1635 году поход против эриванского хана возглавил сам османский султан Мурад IV ( ). Безусловное численное и военное превосходство османской армии привело к разгрому и пленению Тахмасп Кули хана (1636). В то же время османский султан с уважением отнесся к недавнему противнику: ему было дано новое имя (Юсуф бек), предоставлены владения в Анатолии, а местом жительства был определен Стамбул столица Османской империи.

49 АХЧА КОЮНЛУ КАДЖАРЫ: ИРАВАНСКОЕ БЕГЛЕРБЕКСТВО В ПЕРВОЙ ТРЕТИ XVII ВЕКА 49 Смены власти в обеих воюющих странах Османской империи и Сефевидском Иране привели к заключению мира. Османская империя приобрела территорию Ирака, но уступила Эриванское ханство. По сообщению историков XVII века Тахмасп Кули хан по просьбе сефевидского шаха Аббаса II ( ) был отпущен из плена, но интриги правителя Тавриза Рустам хана привели к тому, что хан был убит османами по дороге домой. Когда об этом стало известно, шах приказал казнить Рустам хана. Очевидно, что, назначая Амиргуна хана правителем крепости Ереван и Чухурсаадского беглербекства, шах Аббас не устанавливал четких границ его владений. Описывая деятельность Амиргуна хана, историки свидетельствуют, что на севере границы его владений доходили до территорий грузинских царств, на северо-востоке земли Чухур-Саада граничили с Карабахским беглербекством, на юго-востоке с беглербекством Азербайджан (с центром в Тебризе). Вопрос о западных и юго-западных границах беглербекства был оставлен открытым: на этих направлениях земли Амиргуна хана граничили с владениями Османской империи, и шахиншах предоставил каджарскому хану возможности расширять свои владения в этом направлении. По сведениям Искандера мунши, Аракела Даврижеци и Ибрахима Эфенди Печеви, Амиргуна хан воевал на значительном расстоянии от Еревана, желая подчинить себе такие отдаленные области, как Карс, Ван, Эрзурум и др. [1, 60; 4, 80-81]. В XVI веке владения Чухур-Саадского беглербека охватывали и земли Нахичевани; в середине XVII века Нахичевань управлялась отдельным ханом [12, 114]. Известный османский историк, географ и путешественник Эвлия Челеби, странствуя в годах по Южному Кавказу, из османских пределов на территорию Сефевидского государства проехал через крепость Карши, о которой он пишет: «Карши первая крепость на земле Персии. Ныне находится на земле Еревана и является одним из городов Азербайджана» [12, 110]. Таким образом, османский писатель отмечает, что вся северо-западная часть владений Сефевидов на Южном Кавказе территориально является Азербайджаном, несущим в себе территориальный, а не этнополитический смысл. Комментируя эти сведения османского путешественника, академик З. Буниятов исходил из того, что под «Азербайджаном» Эвлия Челеби имел в виду всё Сефевидское государство. Внимательное изучение текста «Книги путешествия» показывает, что для Сефевидского государства Эвлия Челеби использовал термин «Персия», а под «Азербайджаном» понимались только северо-западные регионы Сефевидской державы Тебризское, Ширванское, Карабахское и Ираванское (Эриванское) беглербекства, включавшие в свои пределы ряд прочих меньших ханств. Крепость Карши замыкала владения Эриванского беглербекства с запада. Сама крепость имела квадратную форму, была построена высоко на холме. Эвлия Челеби отмечает, что в «прежние времена», то есть в XV XVI веках, «это был крупный город и могущественная крепость», и указывает, что в

50 50 АЛЕКСАНДР НЕСТЕРОВ, ЮЛИЯ ИВАНОВА период войны османского султана Мурада IV против Сефевидов (в ходе которой в годах земли Чухур-Саада вновь оказались под властью Османской империи) крепость Карши была полностью разрушена. В крепости и городе имелись семь мечетей, семь гостиниц, рынок и множество зданий, «но садов и виноградников нет» [12, 110]. В 13 часах пути к востоку от крепости Карши находилось селение Кенд-и Месир, расположенное у подножия горы Месир, управляемое (как отмечает Эвлия Челеби) калантаром представителем ираванского хана (то есть беглербека Чухур-Саада). В селении Эвлия Челеби зафиксировал тысячу домов, покрытых глиной, семь мечетей, три бани, рынок, 300 лавок [12, 111]. Направляясь далее на восток, в 14 часах пути от Кенд-и Месира, Эвлия Челеби прибыл в «местечко Раххан, принадлежащее нахичеванскому хану», откуда еще через 7 часов пути на восток приехал в Уч-Килисе (Эчмиадзин) [12, ]. Во время путешествия Эвлия Челеби Эчмиадзин находился под властью хана Нахичевани. Документ 1620 года, изданный Амиргуна ханом и подтверждающий принадлежность земель села Уч-Килисе Эчмиадзинскому монастырю, показывает, что в годах владения Нахичевани были составной частью Чухур-Саадского беглербекства с центром в Ереване [10, ], это же подтверждает и Искандер мунши [13, 502]. Дальнейшее движение каравана Эвлия Челеби из Уч-Килисе продолжалось на восток через несколько селений (Седерге, Карабаглар) до Нахичевани; Искандер мунши определённо подчеркивает, что в 1604 / 1605 годах и Нахичевань, и Ереван, и окружающие их территории находились под властью беглербека Чухур-Саада [13, 645]. Дав описание Нахичевани, а также нескольких селений на юго-восток от нее, Эвлия Челеби с караваном покинул пределы Чухур-Саада и посетил беглербекство Азербайджан с центром в Тебризе. Возвращаясь впоследствии из Тебриза, Эвлия Челеби вновь побывал в Чухур-Сааде. Из Тебриза его путь проходил через Ардебиль на северо-запад. Первой территорией, которую Эвлия Челеби отнес к «владениям Нахичевани», то есть уже к землям Чухур-Саадского беглербекства, был город Чорс центр отдельного владения с собственным ханом. Чорс в середине XVII века представлял собой незначительную крепость пятиугольной формы, размещенную на вершине невысокого холма [12, 148]. Из Чорса караван двинулся на восток, преодолел реку Карачубук и через четыре часа путешествия достиг селения Милли Реван, которое представляло собой «благоустроенное и заселенное место во владениях Еревана, с пятью сотнями домов, с садами, виноградниками и соборной мечетью» [12, 149]. Оттуда вдоль берега Аракса через Кафадж, Шурекли и Сейфеддин караван добрался до города Ереван столицы беглербекства [12, ]. Подробно описывая Ереванскую крепость (построенную как Реван в период правления сефевидского шаха Исмаила I в начале XVI века), Эвлия Челеби рассказывает о неоднократных полных разрушениях этой крепости и о том, что каждый раз крепость воздвигали вновь. Все эти разрушения проис-

51 АХЧА КОЮНЛУ КАДЖАРЫ: ИРАВАНСКОЕ БЕГЛЕРБЕКСТВО В ПЕРВОЙ ТРЕТИ XVII ВЕКА 51 ходили как следствие османо-сефевидских войн [12, ]. Крепость, по мнению Эвлия Челеби, не была серьезно укреплена, так как имела только один ряд стен. В качестве особой достопримечательности Эвлия Челеби упоминает «ханский дворец, который построил Амиргуна хан» [12, 155]. О городе и крепости Реван / Ираван / Ереван Эвлия Челеби писал: «Начиная с 1045 ( ) года Эреван находится в руках персов. Это заселенный и благоустроенный город. Однако, поскольку его крепость имеет всего один ряд стен, сильного штурма она вынести не может. Крепость находится на берегу реки Занга, она вытянута с юга на север и совершенно лишена подземных помещений. И поныне на ее стенах и зубцах видны следы [разрушений] от пушек Мурада IV. В тех местах, где крепость сооружал Фархад-паша, она имеет высоту до сорока мекканских локтей; там же, где строил Токмак-хан, высота пятьдесят локтей и ширина двадцать локтей это как набережная. Со стороны реки Занга рва нет, бойничных отверстий тут множество. С южной, восточной и северной сторон рвы есть. Но так как место болотистое, они не очень глубокие. В некоторых местах рвы имеют сто пятьдесят локтей в ширину. Прочных железных ворот 3. Тебризские ворота открываются на юг, Мейданные, которые называют также воротами Яйлы, на север. В этой же части находится площадь, для игры в джарид. Наконец, третьи Мостовые ворота, персы называют их на своем языке так же. От османов тут осталось до сотни больших и малых пушек, а прочее воинское снаряжение без счету. Так как это место находится на границе Азербайджана, оно досталось персам с трудом. Здесь стоит до трех тысяч воинов гарнизона [крепости], три тысячи воинов хана и семь тысяч войска эйялета. Место это несколько раз было ханством ханов. Здесь имеются кадий, молла, шейх-и шериф, калантар, даруга, мунши, ясаул-ага, курчибаши, эшик-ага, дизчёкен-ага, семь михмандаров и шехбсндеров. Внутри города насчитывается приблизительно две тысячи шестьдесят крытых глиной домов. Самый благоустроенный из них ханский дворец, который построил Амиргуна хан. Поблизости от этого дворца, с левой стороны, шахский монетный двор, где чеканят аббаси и бисти. Большое предместье, расположенное перед воротами Яйлы, называют также Старым городом. В этом предместье есть караван-сарай, соборная мечеть, рынок и базар. У моста разбит ханский виноградник. Здесь есть также много соборных мечетей, ханов, бань, рынков это настоящий город. После того как в 1045 ( ) году эта местность перешла в руки персов, к крепости с ее наружной, восточной стороны была пристроена небольшая крепость в три яруса насыпных, толстых, как мол, стен, и она стала прочнее каменной постройки». Покинув Ираван и двигаясь дальше в направлении Баку, Эвлия Челеби и его спутники прошли через селения Ходжабагы и Демирджихасан, после чего покинули пределы Чухур-Саада и оказались на территории Гянджинского (Карабахского) беглербекства.

52 52 АЛЕКСАНДР НЕСТЕРОВ, ЮЛИЯ ИВАНОВА Таким образом, отдельные упоминания в исторических сочинениях XVII XVIII веков, а также описание путешествия Эвлия Челеби и официальные документы, изданные Амиргуна ханом и его преемником Тахмасп Кули ханом позволяют постулировать то, что владения беглербеков Чухур- Саада охватывали практически полностью территории современной Армении и Нахичеванской автономной республики Азербайджана, а также отдельные регионы северо-восточной Турции и северо-западного Ирана. Естественно, что точные границы владений Амиргуна хана и его сына Тахмасп Кули хана провести невозможно. Безусловной заслугой Амиргуна хана является реорганизация территории Западного Азербайджана в отдельную административную единицу Эриванское ханство, способствовавшее формированию региональной этнополитической идентичности тюркского (каджарского) населения региона. В Азербайджане применительно к XVI XVII векам вполне была возможна множественность критериев идентификации: человек мог быть азербайджанцем (по региону, где проживал), тюрком (по языку), каджаром (по родовому объединению), персом (как подданный шахиншаха Персии), армянином (по армяно-григорианской версии христианской религии, если он ее исповедовал). Отсюда важнейший вывод: ссылка в источниках на самоидентификацию человека не свидетельствует о его этническом происхождении. Скажем, «армянином» мог оказаться кто угодно в этническом смысле по аналогии с тем, как в Европе идентификация «католик» могла принадлежать и французу, и австрийцу, и итальянцу, и испанцу и т.д. Тюрки Южного Кавказа могли принимать христианство по разным соображениям, но от этого они отнюдь не становились «армяно-григорианцами» и не переставали быть этнически тюрками и влиять своим бытом на евразийские ареалы как этнотюрки. Именно поэтому особенно интересно исследовать сефевидский период в истории Западного Азербайджана, и особенно интересны в этом смысле Эриванское (Ираванское, Ереванское) ханство, где однозначно большинство населения составляли тюрки, и Карабахское ханство, где в современной пропаганде «пять меликств» активно используются как армянские владения на карабахской территории, но это не является фактом применительно к их этническому происхождению (если, например, анализировать их ономастику и генеалогические связи, можно предполагать, что пять меликств являются остаточными реликтами албанской кавказской государственности, но это уже тема отдельного исследования). Именно деятельность Амиргуна хана и Тахмасп Кули хана стала началом формирования ханства, которое в XVIII веке стало одним из первых тюркских азербайджанских государств эпохи Нового времени. Его территория охватывала земли будущих Эриванского и Нахичеванского ханств XVIII XIX вв. и частично захватывала земли Северо-Восточной Турции и Северо- Западного Ирана. Основное население ханства составляли тюрки каджары

53 АХЧА КОЮНЛУ КАДЖАРЫ: ИРАВАНСКОЕ БЕГЛЕРБЕКСТВО В ПЕРВОЙ ТРЕТИ XVII ВЕКА 53 ахча коюнлу, и с этого времени вплоть до XIX века огузский тюркский этнический компонент оставался на данной территории основным. Таким образом, деяния ахча коюнлу каджарских ханов Амиргуна хана и Тахмасп Кули хана в первой трети XVII века являются важнейшим этапом в формировании региональной тюркской государственности на землях Западного Азербайджана. ЛИТЕРАТУРА 1. Аракел Даврижеци. Книга историй / Аракел Даврижеци. М.: Наука, c. 2. Есаи Хасан-Джалалян. Краткая история страны Агванской / Есаи Хасан- Джалалян. Баку, c. ISBN Закарий Канакерци. Хроника / Закарий Канакерци. М.: Наука, c. 4. Ибрахим Эфенди Печеви. История / Ибрахим Эфенди Печеви. Баку: Элм, c. 5. Малик Шах Хусайн Систани. Хроника воскрешения царей / Малик Шах Хусайн Систани. М.: Восточная литература, с. ISBN Нестеров А.Г. Амиргуна хан каджар и формирование Ираванского беглербекства в начале XVII века / А.Г. Нестеров // Azərbaycanşünaslığın aktual problemləri. III Beynəlxalq elmi konfransın materialları. Bakı, 2-5 may 2012-ci il. Bakı, S Нестеров А.Г. Каджарские беглербеки Иравана в XVII веке: у истоков национальной государственности Азербайджана / А.Г. Нестеров // Azərbaycanşünaslığın aktual problemləri. IV Beynəlxalq elmi konfransın materialları. Bakı, 1-4 may 2013-ci il. Bakı, S Нестеров А.Г. К вопросу об идентичности населения Азербайджана в XVI XVII веках / А.Г. Нестеров // Azərbaycanşünaslığın aktual problemləri. V Beynəlxalq elmi konfransın materialları. Bakı, 5-7 may 2014-cü il. Bakı, S Нестеров А.Г. Чухурсаадское беглярбекство в гг. / А.Г. Нестеров // Azərbaycanşünaslığın aktual problemləri. VI Beynəlxalq elmi konfransın materialları. II hissə. Bakı, 5-7 may 2015-ci il. Bakı, S Персидские документы Матенадарана. I. Указы. Вып. 2 ( ). / Сост. А.Д. Папазян. Ереван: Изд-во Академии наук Армянской ССР, с. 11. Симеон Ереванци. Джамбр. Памятная книга, зерцало и сборник всех обстоятельств Святого Престола Эчмиадзина и окрестных монастырей / Симеон Ереванци. М.: Изд-во вост. литературы, с. 12. Эвлия Челеби. Книга путешествий. Вып. 3. Земли Закавказья и сопредельных областей Малой Азии и Ирана / Эвлия Челеби. М.: Наука, с. 13. İsgəndər bəy münşi türkman. Dünyanı bəzəyən Abbasın tarixi (Tarihealəmaraye-Abbasi) / İsgəndər bəy münşi türkman. Bakı: Şərq-Qərb, s. ISBN

54 54 АЛЕКСАНДР НЕСТЕРОВ, ЮЛИЯ ИВАНОВА Aleksandr Nesterov Yuliya İvanova Ağcaqoyunlu qacarlar: XVII əsrin ilk qərinəsində İrəvan bəylərbəyliyi Xülasə Məqalədə İrəvan (Çuxur-Səd) bəylərbəyliyi ərazisinin təşəkkülü tarixçəsindən bəhs edilir. Bu prosesdə Cənubi Qafqaza XV əsrdə köçmüş ağcaqoyunlu qacarların oğuz türklərinin xüsusi rolu olmuşdur. Əmirhun xanın fəaliyyəti nəticəsində XVII əsrin 1-ci rübündə xanlığın əsas ərazisi təşəkkül tapmış və əhalisinin regional etnosiyasi identikliyinə şərait yaranmışdır. Açar sözlər: Çuxur-Səd, İrəvan xanlığı, Çuxur-Səd bəylərbəyliyi, Əmirhun xan, ağcaqoyunlu qacarları. Aleksandr Nesterov Yuliya Ivanova Ahcha Koyunlu Kacars: the Iravan Beylerbeylik in the First Third of the XVII century Abstract In the article the territory formation of the Iravan (Chuhur-Saad) beylerbeylik in the first third of the XVII century is analyzed. Ahcha Koyunlu Kacar played a special role here and was the branch of the Oghuz Turkic tribe of Kacar, who migrated to the South Caucasus in the XV century. Following the results of Amirgunah khan s activities the main territory of the khanate was formed. Moreover, the formation of the regional ethno-political identity of its population started that time. Key words: Chuhur-Saad, Iravan khanate, Chuhur-Saad beylerbeylik, Amirgunah khan, Ahcha Koyunlu Kacar.

55 TÜRKOLOGİYA MİFOLOGİYA МИФОЛОГИЯ MYTHOLOGY ЗАКИРЖАН АМИНЕВ (Россия, Башкортостан) О РЕЛИКТЕ КУЛЬТА ГОР У БАШКИР Резюме В статье повествуется об одном из элементов вероисповедания в доисламской Башкирии, о культе гор (поклонении горам). В статье исследуются этнические особенности данного культа, влияющие на народ, родившийся и по сей день проживающий на территории Южного Урала. Сооружения в виде пирамид, колонн, называющиеся караскы, являются материальным отражением культа гор у башкир. Эти каменные сооружения воздвигались башкирами с целью сакрализации пространства и отражали их мифологические представления о Вселенной, воплощенных в образе Мировой Горы. На наличие в прошлом у башкир культа гор указывают также выявленные на Южном Урале и прилегающих территориях многочисленные топонимы Ыйык. В статье повествуется о том, что воздвижение каменных сооружений, повторяющих по форме башкирские караскы, зафиксированы в Азии, у этнически близких тюрков и монголов, обнаруживаются параллели не только во внешней схожести, но с точки зрения этимологии и семантики. eler Ключевые слова: поклонение горе (культ гор), доисламское мировоззрение башкир, караскы. Каждый народ обладает собственной, не похожей ни на какую другую, уникальной культурой. И у каждого народа имеется только ему присущий особый взгляд на мир, на место в нем как отдельного человека, так и общества в целом. В последние годы ученые-культурологи уделяют особое внимание этому феномену, который они называют «картиной мира», используя иногда такие словосочетания, как «модель универсума», «образ мира», «модель мира» и др. «Картина мира» каждого народа вырабатывается и шлифуется веками. Россия, Башкортостан, Академия наук Республики Башкортостан, Институт гуманитарных исследований, научный сотрудник. [email protected]

56 56 ЗАКИРЖАН АМИНЕВ Башкиры, несмотря на то, что давно приняли ислам и являются народом, принадлежащим мусульманской культуре, до сих пор сохраняют многое из того, что называется «доисламская культура», «доисламское мировоззрение». Современный башкирский народ, по мнению историков, сформировался на базе ираноязычных сармато-аланских, финно-угорских и различных тюркоязычных племен. Первые письменные упоминания о башкирах как о народе восходят к IX Xвв. Считается, что формирование башкирского народа происходило на Южном Урале и прилегающих к нему землях. Природа Южного Урала находит отражение в «картине мира» башкирского народа. Можно сказать, что башкирская культура и менталитет пронизаны Уралом. По поводу роли и места Урала и прилегающих земель в жизни башкирского народа известный российский историк, специалист по этногенезу, башкир, член-корреспондент РАН Р. Г. Кузеев в одной из своих работ справедливо отметил: «Какие бы термины ни использовались для обозначения башкир коренных жителей республики и более обширного региона, общественность сознает, что башкиры живут на своей исторической родине. Невозможно также не учитывать, что восприятие этого факта обыденным сознанием представителей башкирского этноса необычайно глубокое; оно нашло отражение во всех слоях богатой традиционной духовной культуры башкир. Развитие башкирской нации в указанном направлении будет постоянным» [8, с. 143]. Башкиры по языку принадлежат к огромному тюркскому миру и живо интересуются всем, что происходит в нем. Являясь народом, относящимся к тюрко-исламской культуре, башкиры в то же время понимают и свое отличие от остальных тюрков в культуре, языке и не желают утрачивать это в угоду исламу или всему тюркскому. Мусульманство, тюркизм, принадлежность российскому государственному образованию и этническая идентичность у башкир вот уже несколько веков мирно уживаются, не мешая и не затрудняя совместного сосуществования. Несмотря на участие в этногенезе башкир и множества племен, относящихся к разным этническим мирам (индоиранский, тюркский, финноугорский), мировоззрение, этническая картина мира, сформированные мифосознанием башкир, отличаются целостностью и единством, что обусловлено, по мнению многочисленных исследователей традиционной культуры, тем, что совокупность обычаев одного народа всегда отмечена каким-то стилем [14, 3], что «нет такой ранней поры, когда человечество питалось бы обрывками или отдельными кусками представлений. В самые первые эпохи истории мы застаем человека с системным восприятием. Как в области материальной, так и в общественной и духовной, первобытный человек с самого начала системен, и в этом его коренное отличие от стадного животного. Чем древней культура, тем больше в ней внутренней связности, неподвижности, замкнутости» [15,29], что традиционное мировоззрение не может объяснять мир бесчисленным количеством причин и допущений [12, 27]; [14, 11]. Ми-

57 О РЕЛИКТЕ КУЛЬТА ГОР У БАШКИР 57 ровоззрение, религиозные представления башкир не могут быть хаосом взглядов, обычаев, обрядов, а образуют систематизированную картину бытия, подчиненную определенной идее, объясняющей устройство мира, человеческого общества и место самого человека как в мире, так и в социуме. В традиционной культуре башкир до сих пор сохраняются реликты культа гор. На господствующих горных вершинах в Зауралье башкирское население до наших дней в честь духов гор и местностей складывает из камней достигающие иногда нескольких метров сооружения в виде столбов, колонн, маленьких куч и горок, которые они называют «караскы». Согласно информаторам, их в настоящее время складывают пастухи. Сами же пастухи, сооружающие караскы, не могут объяснить их предназначения, ссылаясь на традицию, что так делали до них старики. Опрос русских, живущих среди башкир, показал, что караскы возводятся только башкирами. Тщательный опрос чуть ли не всех взрослых жителей близлежащих башкирских аулов позволил установить, что караскы сооружались только духам гор и земли-воды (ер-һыу), и только на своей территории. Как сообщила информатор М. Баймухаметова (1923 г.р.) из деревни Баиш Баймакского района Республики Башкортостан, раньше караскы складывали дивана - «юродивые дервиши», которые объясняли это тем, что каждая местность имеет своих духов-владык (по-башкирски эйәләр ), которым требуется возведение таких каменных сооружений караскы. Она слышала это еще в юности, до второй мировой войны от диваналар, которых раньше у них в округе было очень много. Другой информатор, С. С. Хайбуллин (1923 г. р.), башкир рода бурзян из аула Татлыбай того же района, сообщил то же самое, а также добавил, что раньше, до второй мировой войны старики каждый год весной в мае (в середине месяца) подымались на вершину горы, где стояли караскы и совершали там жертвоприношение: резали барашков (по-башкирски kусkар тәкә ), читали суры из Корана. Этот же информатор пояснил, что каждая местность имеет своего эйә -«хозяина-владыку». Такие же сооружения в виде насыпей, куч, колонн, пирамид, сложенные из камней различной величины, можно встретить в разных районах Республики Башкортостан и сопредельных территорий, где проживают башкиры. Во многих из них население уже не знает каких-то специальных терминов, обозначающих эти сооружения. Называют их просто «өйөм», «уба», что на русский язык переводится как куча. Традиционным занятием местного башкирского населения в Зауралье до революции 1917 г. было скотоводство и частично земледелие. Почва в этих краях каменистая, плодородный слой очень тонкий и постоянно дующие в межгорьях ветра при распашке выдувают плодородный гумус, поэтому места здесь мало приспособлены для занятия земледелием и относятся к зоне рискованного земледелия. В связи с чем башкиры здесь в основном занимались скотоводством. У аула Татлыбай Баймакского района Республики Башкортостан на вершине ближайшей к аулу горы возвышаются пять караскы, построенных в линию и

58 58 ЗАКИРЖАН АМИНЕВ одна из них (третья по счету, то есть средняя) выше, чем остальные, и имеет сквозное отверстие. Функциональное назначение этого отверстия выяснить не удалось, со слов местного населения, «так было всегда». Согласно информаторам, раньше, еще в довоенные годы, у этих караскы весной, где-то в мае месяце, совершались жертвоприношения. И мясо жертвенных баранов съедалось всеми вместе во время пиршества после прочтения молитвы с просьбой здоровья всему роду, мира и спокойствия стране в целом, изобилия в травах, урожая зерновых и преумножения скота и т. п. Можно предположить, что пять караскы у аула Татлыбай как бы символизируют четыре грани мира с сакральной серединой, которую символизирует третья, (средняя) более высокая, чем остальные, колонна. На эту мысль наталкивают формы некоторых караскы в виде четырехугольных сооружений довольно больших размеров. Такой караскы, каждая из сторон которого примерно метров в шесть, находится на вершине горы Кынгыр-таш между аулами Карышка и Баиш Баймакского района Республики Башкортостан. Караскы, сооружаемые на вершинах гор башкирами, семантически близки к воздвигаемым алтайцами каракшы, сооруженным из камней знаками, которыми они отделяли друг от друга свои родовые земли и пастбища [11, 14]. Алтайцы до сих пор останавливаются у каменных кладок на высоких горных перевалах, у целебных родников и совершают там обряд поклонения родным местам, преподносят духам местности ритуальную еду [7, 253]. Башкирские караскы и алтайские каракшы идентичны не только по внешней форме, но и практически созвучны, а замену звука «с» на «к» можно объяснить контаминацией. Такая закономерность для башкирского языка не чужда, например, азбар/абзар ( сарай ), тукта/тутка( стой ) и т. п. В современном литературном башкирском языке слово «караскы» в первоначальном значении стража уже не применяется, а используется только в значении чучело, пугало, которые ставят в огородах и садах для отпугивания птиц от грядок, то есть эти огородные караскы выполняют функции стража. Этимология слова «караскы» восходит к слову «карау» смотреть, наблюдать, охранять. В этом значении данное слово в варианте «каракшы» бытует у соседей башкир в казахском, каракалпакском языках, где означает стража, стражник.в варианте «караша», в смысле ханская стража, это слово встречается в ногайских эпосах XIV XVвв. [13, 82]. Алтайские каракшы и башкирские караскы близки и по семантике этих сооружений. Также как и алтайцы, башкиры, воздвигая на вершинах гор караскы, посвященные духам их родовых местностей, и совершая вблизи них жертвоприношения, надеялись получить от них отдачу в виде надежной охраны своей родовой территории. Известно, что в этом же значении использовались у центральноазиатских монголов, бурят, тувинцев обоо. По этому поводу специалист по монгольским народам Н. Л. Жуковская писала, что обоо сооружались из камней в виде кучи, колонн, столбов на перевалах, вершинах гор с целью заручиться сакральной поддержкой того сонма духов, ко-

59 О РЕЛИКТЕ КУЛЬТА ГОР У БАШКИР 59 торым была подведомственна территория данного человеческого коллектива [5, 128]. По мнению большинства ученых, обоо восходят к древнейшим представлениям о Вселенной, воплощенных в образе Мировой Горы, и связаны с развитием в традиционных культурах Центральной Азии и Южной Сибири культа гор [6, ]; [3, 175]; [10, 130]. Обоо устанавливаются как на вершинах холмов, возвышающихся в степях и горных долинах, так и на горных перевалах, в наиболее опасных местах, а также на дорогах, у истоков рек и источников. По своей структуре эти культовые сооружения имеют достаточно существенные различия. На перевалах, тропах, у источников обычно сооружались одиночные насыпи, символизировавшие пребывание духа-хозяина конкретного места, в котором люди бывают периодически. Обоо, посвященные «хозяевам» значительных территорий, где люди живут постоянно, представляют собой достаточно сложные комплексы. В степных просторах Бурятии чаще всего они состоят из 12 невысоких конических каменных насыпей, образующих круг, в центре которого возвышается более высокая насыпь, с укрепленным в ее центре высоким деревянным шестом, завершающимся изображением птицы. Эти насыпи символизируют самые высокие горы региона и их духов-хозяев, покровителей всей Бурятии, а центральная, самая большая, олицетворяет мифическую гору Сумбер [1, 73]. В конце июня буряты Восточного Саяна возле обоо ежегодно проводили праздничные мероприятия обоо - тахилха («жертвоприношение»), где принимали участие все жители местности, которая в символической структуре всего пространства района принадлежала данному культовому комплексу. Обоо-тахилха относится к категории календарных праздников. В представлении современных жителей района он завершает осенне-зимний сезон и открывает весеннелетний, что связано с перекочевкой на летние пастбища. Его целью было испрашивание у «хозяев» гор благополучия: здоровья, хорошего травостоя, избавления от болезней и эпизоотий, хорошего приплода скота и т. п. Символический «рисунок» ритуала включал весь комплекс обрядовых действий, направленных на обновление мира, его новое обустройство, поддержание созидательных космических сил и, в частности, живительной силы солнца [10, ]. Аналогичный способ сакрализации пространства путем воздвижения каменных сооружений, повторяющих по форме монгольские обоо или башкирские караскы, зафиксирован в Средней Азии, у этнически близких башкирам тюркоязычных каракалпаков [4, ]. В частности, на территории Республики Каракалпакстан в Узбекистане в урочище Султан-Бобо есть почитаемое место искусственно сооруженная на скальном выступе огромная груда камней, увенчанных шестами с повязанными обетными тряпицами обо [9, 129]. К сожалению, из текстов названных авторов не совсем ясно: сами ли каракалпаки называют эти груды камней обо, или же их так обозначили исследователи, обнаруживая параллели с монгольскими обоо не только во внешней схожести, но и во внутренней семантике.в башкирском языке име-

60 60 ЗАКИРЖАН АМИНЕВ ется созвучное с обоо слово «уба», имеющее несколько значений. На русский язык, смотря по контексту, уба можно перевести как холм или куча. Башкирское слово «уба» и центрально-азиатские «обоо», «обо», «ово» имеют, как нам кажется, единое происхождение. На такую мысль наталкивает проведенное К. К. Юдахиным исследование слова «обоо», которое у памиро-алайских киргизов означает холм, кучу из камней, груду камней как жертвоприношение духу гор. Известный исследователь истории и культуры киргизского народа С.М. Абрамзон считает, что киргизы высокогорного Памиро-Алая обоо сооружали на вершинах гор, на перевалах и приносили там жертвы хозяевам мест. Возле этих обоо водружали высокие шесты, на которых вешали различные тряпицы, пучки шерсти, нитки, хвосты яков, лошадей. Рядом с обоо складывали черепа горных баранов и козлов [2, 319]. На наличие в прошлом у башкир культа гор указывают также выявленные нами на Южном Урале и прилегающих территориях многочисленные топонимы Ыйык, Ыйык-тау. По данным наших информаторов, раньше, до второй мировой войны ранней весной всей деревней шли к этим горам (Ыйык) молиться, читали там молитвы, резали барашков и совершали другие жертвоприношения. На вершинах этих гор также имелись каменные сооружения в виде куч, пирамид и колонн. У некоторых из этих куч, колонн и пирамид были раньше воткнуты длинные палки, шесты, к которым привязывали различные лоскутки, тряпицы, платочки, пучки шерсти, клали монеты. Информации об Ыйык мы встречаем и в материалах башкирского фольклора: Ыйык башы йыл башы//яйык башы юл башы. По данным информаторов, Ыйык это священная гора и поэтому туда просто так, без нужды старались не подниматься. Об этом упоминается и у известного русского ученого XVIII в. И. И. Лепёхина, которому во время путешествия по Башкирии захотелось подняться на вершину священной для башкир горы Тора-тау в нынешнем Ишимбайском районе Республики Башкортостан. Однако, как пишет И. И. Лепёхин, он долго не мог найти среди башкир провожатого, желающего пройтись вместе с ним на вершину этой горы. Свое нежелание идти в гору башкиры объясняли тем, что «не время», то есть на вершину данной горы местные башкиры поднимались только в определенное время года, ранней весной для совершения общественных молений. Опираясь на вышеизложенные факты можно сказать, что обнаруженные нами в башкирском Зауралье каменные сооружения караскы являются реликтовыми отголосками бытовавшего у башкир культа гор и имеют ту же семантику, что и у тюркоязычных народов Саяно-Алтая. ЛИТЕРАТУРА 1. Абаева Л. Л. Культ гор и буддизм в Бурятии. М., Абрамзон С. М. Киргизы и их этногенетические и историко-культурные связи. Фрунзе, 1990.

61 О РЕЛИКТЕ КУЛЬТА ГОР У БАШКИР Дьяконова В. П. Алтайцы. Горно-Алтайск, Есбергенов Х. «Обо» в Каракалпакии и их этнографические параллели. Фольклор, литература и история Востока. Ташкент, Жуковская Н. Л. Пространство и время в мировоззрении монголов. Мифы, культы и обряды народов Зарубежной Азии. М., Кагаров Е. Г. Монгольское «обо» и их этнографические параллели. Сборник МАЭ. т. VI, Ленинград, Казагачева З. Алтайские героические сказания «Оча-бала» и «Кан-Алтай»: Аспекты текстологии и перевода. Горно-Алтайск, Кузеев Р. Г. Национальные движения в прошлом и логика их современного развития. Россия и Восток: проблемы взаимодействия. ч. 1. М., Лобачева Н. П. Этнографический экскурс из экспедиционного прошлого. М.,2004; Полевые исследования Института этнологии и антропологии. М., Павлинская Л. Р. Обоо в культуре народов Восточных Саян: жизнь традиции во времена перемен. Радловский сборник. СПб., Полосьмак Н. В. «Стерегущие золото грифы», Новосибирск, Сагалаев А. М. Урало-алтайская мифология. Символ и архетип. Новосибирск, Сикалиев А. И. Ногайский героический эпос. Черкесск, М., Традиционное мировоззрение тюрков Южной Сибири, Новосибирск, Фрейденберг О. М. Миф и литература древности, М., Başqırdlarda dağ kultu relikti Xülasə Zakircan Aminev Məqalə başqırdların İslam dinindən əvvəlki dövrdə inanc dünyasının ünsürlərindən biri olan dağlara sitayiş ənənəsi haqqındadır. Məqalədə bu ənənənin Cənubi Uralda doğulmuş və hələ də orada yaşayan xalq üzərindəki etnik xüsusiyyətləri izah edilir. Müəyyən bir nizamla qurulan piramidalar, sütun şəklindəki karaskı adlanan tikililər başqırdlardakı dağ ənənəsinin maddi təzahürüdür. Bu daş tikililər başqırdlar üçün ərazini müqəddəsləşdirmə vəzifəsini daşımış və onların Dünyadağı şəklində cisimləşən Kainat haqqındakı mifoloji baxışlarını təsvir etmişdir. Girişdə bütün türksoylu xalqlarda müqəddəs dağ mənası daşıyan Iyık kəlməsi əsasında Cənubi Uralda yaranmış bir çox toponim başqırdlarda dağ ənənəsi olduğunu göstərir. Məqalədə başqırd karaskı larının və Avrasiyanın bir çox türksoylu xalqlarında və monqollardakı oxşar daş tikililərin etimoloji və semantik baxımdan yaxın və hətta eyni olduqları ortaya çıxmışdır. Açar sözlər: Dağa sitayiş (dağ ənənəsi), başqırdların İslamdan əvvəlki dünyagörüşü, karaskı.

62 62 ЗАКИРЖАН АМИНЕВ Zakirjan Aminev On the Mountain Worship of Bashkir People Abstractt The article is about to one of the relicts of the Bashkirs pre-islamic world-outlook the cult of mountains. The ethnic specifics of this cult among this nation, which has been formed and is still living up to now in the South Urals are explained in the article. As a material reverberation of the cult of mountains among Bashkirs there became karasky a construction of stones in the shape of pyramids, pillars, piled up in a definite order. These stone constructions of Bashkirs served as the way of sacralization of the space and reflected their mythological images about the Universe, personified in the image of World Mountains. At the presence of the cult of mountains among the Bashkirs there numerous toponyms on the territory of the South Urals specify on the base of the word Yjyk, which firstly meant among all the Turkic people sacred mountain. In the conclusion there is given an inference about etymological and semantic proximity and even identity of Bashkirs karasky and similar stone structures among many Turkic and Mongolian people of Eurasia. ey Key words: Mountain worship, Cult of mountains, pre-islamic outlook of the Bashkir people, karasky.

63 TÜRKOLOGİYA MÜZAKİRƏ ОБСУЖДЕНИЯ DEBATES ZÜMRÜD QULUZADƏ (Azərbaycan) * BİR DAHA AZƏRBAYCAN TARİXŞÜNASLIĞININ MƏXƏZLƏRİ OLAN "KİTABİ-DƏDƏ QORQUD" DASTANI VƏ ABBASQULU AĞA BAKIXANOVUN "GÜLÜSTANİ-İRƏM" ƏSƏRİ HAQQINDA Xülasə Məqalədə diqqət mərkəzində iki əsas məsələ durur: 1. Eposun tarixin rekonstruksiyasında əhəmiyyəti və Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud da Şaman oğlu Şaman Bayandur xanın Cənubi Qafqazda yerləşmiş, Bərdə və Gəncə şəhərlərini də ehtiva edən, müəllifin gümanına görə, Alban dövlətindən əvvəl türk-oğuz dövlətinin mövcud olması; eyni zamanda, dövlət oğuz-türk millətinin müasir azərbaycanlıların etnogenezində rolu problemi. 2. Abbasqulu ağa Bakıxanovun Gülüstani-İrəm əsərinin Qafqaz tarixi və mədəniyyət tarixinin bərpası üçün əhəmiyyəti və əsərin elmi və mənəvi baxımdan unikal olan tədqiqat konsepsiyası. Açar sözlər: Epos, Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud, Cənubi Qafqaz, oğuz-türk, Gülüstani- İrəm. Təqdim edilmiş məqalə müəllifin Kitabi-Dədə Qorqud eposu işığında Azərbaycanın elmi tarixinin təkmilləşməsinə yönəlmiş silsilə məqalələrindən biridir. Məqalənin digər məqsədi Azərbaycan tarixçilərinin diqqətini Abbasqulu ağa Bakıxanovun Qafqazın şərq hissəsi tarixi Gülüstani-İrəm əsərinin tədqiqat konsepsiyasına istiqamətləndirməkdir. Məlumdur ki, A.Bakıxanovun qədim dövrlərdən XIX əsrin əvvəlinə qədər Qafqazın şərq hissəsinin tarixinə həsr edilmiş kitabı Çar Rusiyası EA akademikləri M.F.Brosse və B.Dorn tərəfindən çox yüksək qiymətləndirilmişdi. Akademiyanın Tarix-Filologiya Bölməsinin 16 may 1845-ci il tarixli iclasının protokolunda qeyd edildiyi kimi, akademiklər M.F.Brosse və V.Dorn bakılı polkovnik Abbasqulu ağa Bakıxanovun yazdığı Qafqazın şərq hissəsinin tarixi haqqında çox maraqlı məlumat vermişlər: Orada (A.Bakıxanovun kitabında Z.Q.) müxtəlif coğrafi yerlər haqqında çox mühüm məlumatlar və ən * Azərbaycan, Azərbaycan Milli Elmlər Akademiyası (AMEA), Fəlsəfə və Hüquq İnstitutu. [email protected]

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