Platoon Pl 466
Platoon Klavye
Günümüzde insanların işlerini kolay bir hale getiren pek çok araç bulunmaktadır. Hayatın ve teknolojinin devamlı olarak değişmesi ve yenilenmesi ile televizyon, telefon ve bilgisayar gibi araçlar bunlardan yalnızca birkaçıdır. Günlük hayatta özellikle bu dönemde insanların en çok kullandığı ve işlerinin neredeyse çoğunu hallettiği araçlardan olan bilgisayar, işlerin kolay bir şekilde halledilmesinde önemli bir yerdedir. Pek çok insan artık işlerini bilgisayar yolu ile kolay bir şekilde halledebilmektedir. Sahip olduğu işlevsellik ve güç ile dikkatleri çeken bilgisayarlar iş yerleri için ya da evde uzaktan çalışan kişiler için vazgeçilmez araçlardan bir tanesi haline gelmiştir. Bütün özellikleri ile öne çıkan bilgisayarlar için gerekli olan donanımsal parçalar bulunur. Bilgisayarların sahip olduğu pek çok önemli parçalar bulunmaktadır. Bu parçalardan bir tanesi de klavyedir. Her dizüstü ve masaüstü bilgisayarda yer alan klavyeler, tuşlara sahip olan bir parçadır. Bilgisayarınıza komut edebilmek için kullanılmaktadırlar. Eski zamanlarda daktilo şeklinde karşımıza çıkan bu parça, tuşların bir düzlem üzerine yerleştirilmesi ile oluşmuştur. İster tabletlerde isterseniz de bilgisayarınızda ya da daha farklı elektronik aletlerde kullanabilmeniz mümkündür. Klavyeler, sizlerin bilgisayar ya da farklı aletler üzerinde daha rahat bir şekilde yazı yazmanıza olanak sağlar. Bu sayede de iletişim daha kolay bir şekilde gerçekleşebilir. Tüm dünyada her şey daha dijital ve teknolojik bir hale gelmektedir. Klavyeler de bu parçalardan bir tanesidir. Platoon klavye, bilgisayarınız üzerinden gerçekleştireceğiniz tüm işleri daha kolay ve hızlı bir hale getirecektir. Belge oluşturma, yazı yazma, gibi pek çok işlemi pratikleştiren Platoon klavye, farklı çeşitlerde ve modellerde karşınıza çıkabilmektedir. Bilgisayar üzerinde gerçekleştiren bu belge açmak, e-posta ile iletişim sağlayabilmek, araştırma yapmak gibi işlemlerin yapılabilmesi için gerekli olan bir araçtır. Karakter, metin ve daha pek çok komutu gerçekleştirebilen Platoon klavye, önemli bir parçadır. Bilgisayarınızda bulunan uygulamalar üzerinden gerekli olan durumlarda iletişimi sağlayabilmenize yardımcı olan Platoon klavye, bilgisayar parçalarının en temel donanımları arasında yer almaktadır. Bu klavyeler, Platoon markasının kalitesi ile birleştiğinde sizlere daha etkili ve pratik bir kullanım sağlamaktadır. Sanal dünya içerisinde daha kolay bir şekilde iletişimin sağlanması amacı ile Platoon klavye, önemli bir işleme aracılık etmektedir. Bu bakımdan bilgisayar alan kişiler için bilgisayarın klavyesi önemli bir detaydır.
Platoon Klavye İşlevselliği
Gelişen teknoloji ile birlikte bilgisayar ve tablet gibi araçlara da çok talep bulunmaktadır. Bu araçlar, insanların günlük olarak işlerini daha kolay bir hale getirmesi ve yapmak istedikleri işlemi pratik bir şekilde gerçekleştirmesi bakımından oldukça önemlidir. Bu bilgisayar ve tablet gibi araçlarda yapılan işlemlerin daha kolay bir şekilde halledilmesini sağlayan parçalar bulunmaktadır. Bu parçaların en işlevseli ve en önemlisi klavyedir. Yapacağınız işlemleri daha verimli bir şekilde halledebilmek açısından kullanıcılara büyük oranda kolaylık sağlamaktadır. Klavyeler üzerinde bulunan harf dizilimleri, kişilerin el alışkanlığına göre farklılık gösterebilmektedir. Bu bakımdan kendinize uygun harf diziliminde olan Platoon klavyeyi tercihe etmeniz gerekir. Harf dizilimine göre Platoon klavye iki çeşitte yer alır. Bu klavye çeşitlerinden bir tanesi Platoon q klavye çeşididir. Platoon q klavye, İngilizce temelli bir klavye modelidir. Çoğu teknolojik ürününün dilinin İngilizce olması nedeni ile sıklıkla tercih edilen bir klavye modelidir. İngilizceye göre olan harf dizilimi nedeni ile pek çok bilgisayar ve tablet araçlarında yazı yazmayı daha kolay bir hale getirmektedir. Çoğu elektronik alette yer alan q seçeneği, sistem üzerinden gerçekleştirilecek olan işlemin daha hızlı bir şekilde olmasını sağlar. Platoon klavye üzerinde yer alan enter tuşu, kullanıcıların yazı yazma esnasında paragraf başına daha kolay bir şekilde geçiş yapmalarını kolaylaştırır. Platoon klavye üzerinde bulunan Esc tuşu ise isteğiniz pencereyi kapatabilmenize yardımcı olur. Fareniz bozulduğu zaman bu tuş sayesinde dosyaları ya da pencereleri kolayca kapatabilirsiniz. Pek çok farklı özelliklere sahip olan bu tuş dizilimleri sayesinde başka bir ekipmana ihtiyaç duymazsınız. Her türlü komutu gerçekleştiren Platoon klavye, kullanıcılarına kolaylık sağlamak amacı ile üretilmektedir. Bilgisayarınız üzerinde daha kolay hâkimiyet kurmanıza yardımcı olan Platoon klavye, başka elektronik araçlarda tek başına kullanılabilir. Özellikle yazı yazma işleminin daha hızlı olmasını sağlayan bu klavyeler, sistemsel açıdan da pek çok işlemi pratik hale getirir. Platoon klavye üzerindeki F1 tuşu ise programlar ve uygulamalar üzerindeki yardım için gerekli olan bilgileri açabilmektedir. Yazı yazma işleminin yanı sıra kopyala – yapıştır işlemini de pratik bir şekilde gerçekleştirir. Bu işlem sayesinde kendinizi yormadan bir belgeyi ya da dosyayı elinizi kaldırmadan kopyalayıp yapıştırabilirsiniz. Fare ihtiyacınızı en aza indirgeyen bu Platoon klavye sağladığı kısayolları ile pek çok işlemi halledebilir.
Platoon Klavye Modelleri
Kullandığınız bilgisayarlarda ya da tabletlerde komutlarınızı ya da yazmak istediğiniz şeyleri bilgisayar üzerine aktarabilmek için klavye, kullanıcılara büyük kolaylık sağlıyor. Teknolojinin sunduğu yenilikleri sonuna kadar sizlere ileten bu Platoon klavyeler, sizlerin konforu açısından önemli bir yere sahiptir. Klavyeler kullanım alanlarına ve kullanım amaçlarına göre farklı şekillerde karşınıza çıkmaktadır. F ve Q şeklinde iki farklı klavye bulunuyor. Bu Platoon klavye çeşitleri farklı yapılardadır. F klavyeler, Türkçe bir kullanım için daha uygunken Q klavyeler ise İngilizce kullanımı için daha uygundur. Bu iki klavye çeşidi arasından kendi tercihinize göre karar verebilirsiniz. Platoon markasının kullanıcılarına sunduğu pek çok klavye modeli bulunmaktadır. Bu klavye modelleri, Platoon pl, k mini, pl, pl, pl klavye çeşitleridir. Bu klavye modelleri, tamamen kişilerin ihtiyacına ve isteğine göre tasarlanmıştır. Birbirinden farklı özelliklere sahip olan bu Platoon klavye modelleri sayesinde işlerinizi daha verimli bir şekilde halledebilirsiniz. Üzerindeki tuşlar yardımı ile elinizi kaldırmadan tek bir klavye üzerinden konforlu bir kullanım sağlamanız mümkündür. Gün geçtikçe daha farklı modellere ve çeşitlere ev sahipliği yapan Platoon, üretmiş olduğu klavyeler ile kullanıcılarının beğenisini kazanmıştır. Performans olarak işlerinizi kolaylaştıran Platoon klavye ile gerçekleştirmek istediğiniz yazı işlerini de hızlıca halledebilirsiniz. Bazı zamanlar yazı yazmak zor olabilmektedir. Çünkü yazılacak yazının uzun olması işleri daha zorlayıcı hale getirir. Platoon klavye sayesinde yazacağınız yazının uzun ya da kısa olması hiç fark etmemektedir. Özellikle eliniz klavye üzerindeki tuşların dizilimine alıştığından bu durum sizler için daha kolay hale gelecektir.
Öyle ki klavye üzerindeki tuşlara bakmadan yazı yazabilecek durumda olabileceksiniz. Tüm bu faydaları bakımından her bilgisayar sahibinin ilk olarak dikkat ettiği nokta klavye olacaktır. Klavye ile gerçekleşen işlemler, fare ile daha uğraştırıcı ve karışık bir hale gelebilmektedir. Bu bakımdan Platoon klavye, sizlerin rahatlığını düşünerek ürünlerini üretmektedir. Birbirinden farklı klavye modelleri ile ortaya çıkan Platoon, bit kullanıcının ihtiyaç duyduğu tüm detayları içermektedir. Yazı yazmak ana görevi olarak görülen klavyeler bu görevleri dışında daha pek çok görevi üstlenmektedir. Aynı zamanda farklı renklerde ve tutuş şekilleri ile sizlerin beğenisine sunulan Platoon klavye modelleri, tek bir görev amacı ile değil daha farklı görevleri gerçekleştiren bir bütün haline gelmiştir.Dünyada çoğu kişi sahip olduğu iş sebebi ile bilgisayarda çok fazla zaman geçirmektedir. Bu kişiler için işlerini pratik ve aynı zamanda verimli bir şekilde halledebilmek oldukça önemlidir. Bu nedenle kullanmış oldukları bilgisayarda yaptıkları işlemleri daha hızlı bir hale getirecek parçalara ihtiyaç duyarlar. Bu kişilere en büyük yardımı sunan parçalardan bir tanesi klavyelerdir. Klavyeler sayesinde bilgisayar üzerinden iş yapan kişiler daha rahat bir şekilde işlem yapabilmektedir. Platoon klavye üzerindeki tuşların her biri bilgisayar üzerinde gerçekleştirilen işlemlerin kısayolu olarak karşınıza çıkmaktadır. Klavye kullanmadan önce gerçekleştireceğiniz işleri fare ile tek tek pek çok yere basarak hallederken klavye sayesinde yalnızca bir ya da iki tuşla bu işlerin gerçekleşmesini daha hızlı bir hale getirebilirsiniz. Bu sayede işleri daha hızlı gerçekleştirebilme yeteneği kazanabilirsiniz. Aynı zamanda işlerin hızlı bir şekilde halledilmesi sizlere zamandan da tasarruf etmenizi sağlar. Platoon klavyenin sahip olduğu özelliklerden bir tanesi de yenileme işlemidir. Klavye üzerindeki F5 tuşu ile açmış olduğunuz siteyi ya da uygulamayı yenileyebilmeniz mümkündür. Ayrıca bilgisayar üzerinden bir makale, kitap ya da yazı okuyorsanız klavye üzerinde aşağı ve yukarı hareket etmenize imkân sağlayan tuşlar yer alıyor. Platoon klavye üzerinde bulunan tuşlar sayesinde bir sayfada bulunan yazıyı da resmi tuşlar sayesinde anında kopyalayıp istediğinizi yere yapıştırabilirsiniz. Bu işlem için fare ile tek tek işlem yapmanıza gerek kalmaz. Tüm bu işlemlerin pratik ve hızlı bir şekilde gerçekleşmesine yardımcı olan Platoon klavye, işleriniz üzerinde büyük etkiye sahiptir. Yine önemli özelliklerden bir tanesi klavye üzerinde bulunan F2 tuşu sayesinde istediğiniz dosyanın adını düzeltebilir ya da değiştirebilirsiniz. Tek bir tuş ile pek çok işlemi gerçekleştirebilmenize yardımcı olan bu klavyeler, sizlerin işlerinizi gerçekleştirirken üst düzey bir verim almanıza imkân tanır. Platoon klavye sayesinde istediğiniz programı ya da uygulamayı yönetebilirsiniz. Aynı zamanda harf dizilimlerinin yanı sıra toplama, çıkarma, çarpma ve bölme gibi işlemleri de yine klavye üzerinde yer alan sayılar ile birlikte gerçekleştirebilirsiniz. Bütün bu özelliklerin yanında Platoon klavye modelleri, daha pek çok noktada sizlerin işini kolaylaştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Eğer siz de işlerinizi pratik şekilde halletmek istiyorsanız Platoon klavye modelleri arasından kendi ihtiyacınıza uygun modeli seçebilirsiniz.
Platoon Klavye Kolaylığı
Bilgisayar ya da tablet üzerinden gerçekleştirilen çoğu işlemi daha kolay hale getiren Platoon klavye modelleri, her dizüstü ve masaüstü bilgisayarda bulunmaktadır. Bu klavyelerin bazı modelleri, USB aracılığı ile bilgisayara bağlanırken bazı modelleri de Bluetooth aracılığı ile bilgisayarınıza bağlanmaktadır. Platoon Bluetooth klavye modelleri, Platoon kablosuz klavye bağlantısı ile iliştirilen bir modeldir. Daha güvenli bir bağlantı işlemi gerçekleştirmesi bakımından diğer kablosuz klavye modellerinden daha öndedir. Herhangi bir şifreye gerek kalmadan bağlantı kurabilmeniz mümkündür. Bir kablo karışıklığı yaşamak istemeyen kişiler için en çok tercih edilen Platoon klavye modelidir. Platoon Bluetooth klavye modeli, sahip olduğu bağlantı özelliği ile bilgisayarların dışında akıllı televizyonlarda, akıllı telefonlarda ve tabletlerde sizlere kullanım kolaylığı sağlar. Platoon klavye modelleri arasında yer alan bir başka klavye çeşidi ise Platoon ışıklı klavye modelidir. Bilgisayar başında saatlerce zaman geçirmek zorunda kalan kişiler, havanın kararması ile birlikte klavye kullanımında zorluk yaşayabilirler. Az ışığın bulunduğu bir ortamda işlerini halletmek isteyen kişiler için de ışıklı klavye modelleri bulunmaktadır. Kişinin tercihine göre tek renkli ya da farklı renkli LED aydınlatmalar ile işlerinizi kolayca gerçekleştirebilirsiniz. Platoon LEDli klavye modelleri, klavye üzerinde bulunan tuşların yanında farklı alanlar üzerinde de ışıklandırma sunmaktadır. Bölgesel olarak farklı aydınlatma alanlarına da ev sahipliği yapan Platoon, üretmiş olduğu ışıklı klavyeler ile kişilerin kendini motive etmeleri için de gerekli olan bir parça olarak görülmesini sağlamaktadır. Platoon markasının kullanıcıları için sunmuş olduğu bir başka klavye çeşidi ise Platoon mekanik klavye çeşididir. Saatlerce bilgisayar başında vakit geçiren kişiler için öncelikli ihtiyaçlardan bir tanesi mekanik klavyedir. Diğer klavye modellerinden daha iyi bir tepki özelliğine ve süresine sahip olması bakımından performans açısından daha güçlü ve etkilidirler.
Günümüzde oldukça popüler hale gelen bilgisayar oyuncularının da en gözde klavyesi haline gelmiştir. Yine aynı şekilde bilgisayar başında saatlerce yazı yazmak zorunda kalan kişiler için de uzun süreli olan el ve parmak sağlığını koruması bakımından sık sık tercih ediliyor. Oldukça uzun süreli bir ömrü olan bu klavye modeli, sizlerin her anlamda tasarruf sağlamanıza yardımcı oluyor. Oldukça ergonomik bir yapıya sahip olan bu klavye modelleri ile tüm işlerinizi pratik bir şekilde gerçekleşseafoodplus.info, bilgisayar kullanan kişiler için artık bir ihtiyaç haline gelmiştir. Bu denli önemli işlevlere sahip olan bu Platoon klavye modelleri içinden doğru bir tercih yapmak da son derece önemlidir. Doğru bir klavye seçimi yapmak için dikkat edilmesi gereken birkaç önemli nokta bulunmaktadır. Bu noktalardan bir tanesi ihtiyacınıza uygun bir Platoon klavye tercihi yapmaktır. İhtiyacınıza uygun olan bir klavyeyi tercih etmek, sizlerin işini daha kolay bir hale getirecektir. Tüm gün boyunca bilgisayar başında iş yapıyorsanız tuşların sert bir yapıya sahip olması, ellerinizin daha çabuk yorulmasına ve ağrımasına neden olabilmektedir. Bu nedenle eğer bilgisayarda çok vakit geçiriyorsanız bu detaya uygun bir klavye modelini tercih edebilirsiniz. Aynı şekilde klavye seçiminde klavyenin üretiminde kullanılan malzemenin kaliteli olması ve tuşların sahip olduğu yükseklik gibi detaylar da büyük oranda önem taşımaktadır. İşlerin yanı sıra günümüzde bilgisayarlar, bilgisayar oyunları gibi nedenlerle de sık sık kullanılmaktadır. Bilgisayar oyuncularının oyunlarını daha rahat bir şekilde oynaması ve oyun içerisinde ihtiyaç duyduğu özelliklere sahip olması bakımından oyuncular için özel olarak üretilen Platoon klavye modelleri bulunmaktadır. Normal klavyelerde üç tuşa aynı anda basmak gerekirken oyuncular için üretilen Platoon klavye modellerinde tek bir tuş ile bu işlemi gerçekleştirmek mümkündür. Platoon mini klavye ve Platoon mekanik hisli klavye modelleri de aynı şekilde kişilerin ihtiyacına göre üretilmiştir. Oldukça yüksek bir performansa sahip olan Platoon klavye ile farklı işlemler yapmak daha kolay bir hale gelmektedir. Gerekli olan he iş için özel bir tasarım bulunuyor. Oldukça dayanıklı bir yapıya sahip olan bu klavye modelleri, uzun yıllar boyunca kullanabilmeniz bakımından önemlidir. Kablolu, kablosuz, ışıklı, mekanik ve mini gibi pek çok farklı şekilde kullanıcılara sunulan Platoon klavye modelleri, kullanım alanlarına ve ihtiyaçlarına göre farklılık göstermektedir. Bu klavye modellerinin hangisine sahip olursanız olun hepsinin tek ortak noktası sizlerin işlerinizi daha kolay ve pratik bir şekilde gerçekleştirmenize yardımcı olmaktır. Bu bakımdan bilgisayar sahiplerinin bir sonraki önem verdikleri parça klavye olacaktır. Platoon klavye fiyatları, satın almak istediğiniz klavye modelinin özelliğine ve kullanım alanına göre değişkenlik göstermektedir. Sizler de bir Platoon klavye satını almak istiyorsanız Trendyol'dan pek çok Platoon klavye çeşitlerine göz atarak kendinize uygun modele sahip olabilirsiniz.
Name
Identifying information
Reasons
Date of listing
▼M33
1.
Sergey Valeryevich AKSYONOV
Sergei Valerievich AKSENOV (Сергей Валерьевич АКСЁНОВ)
Serhiy Valeriyovych AKSYONOV (Сергiй Валерiйович АКСЬОНОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 26.11.1972
POB: Beltsy (Bălți), Moldavian SSR (now Republic of Moldova)
Aksyonov was elected ‘Prime Minister of Crimea’ in the Crimean Verkhovna Rada on 27 February 2014 in the presence of pro-Russian gunmen. His ‘election’ was decreed unconstitutional by the acting Ukrainian President Oleksandr Turchynov on 1 March 2014. He actively lobbied for the ‘referendum’ of 16 March 2014 and was one of the co‐signatories of the ‘treaty on Crimea’s accession to the Russian Federation’ of 18 March 2014. On 9 April 2014, he was appointed acting ‘Head’ of the so-called ‘Republic of Crimea’ by President Putin. On 9 October 2014, he was formally ‘elected’‘Head’ of the so-called ‘Republic of Crimea’. ‘Re‐elected’ in this position in September 2019.
Member of the Russia State Council. Since January 2017, member of the High Council of United Russia Party.
For his involvement in the annexation process he has been awarded with Russian State order ‘For Merit to the Fatherland’ – first degree.
17.3.2014
2.
Vladimir Andreevich KONSTANTINOV
(Владимир Андреевич КОНСТАНТИНОВ)
Volodymyr Andriyovych KONSTANTINOV
(Володимир Андрiйович КОНСТАНТIНОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 19.11.1956
POB: Vladimirovka (a.k.a. Vladimirovca), Slobozia Region, Moldavian SSR (now Republic of Moldova) or Bogomol, Moldavian SSR (now Republic of Moldova)
As speaker of the Supreme Council of the Autonomous ‘Republic of Crimea’, Konstantinov played a relevant role in the decisions taken by the ‘Supreme Council’ concerning the ‘referendum’ against territorial integrity of Ukraine and called on voters to cast their votes in favour of Crimean independence in the ‘referendum’ of 16 March 2014. He was one of the co‐signatories of the ‘treaty on Crimea’s accession to the Russian Federation’ of 18 March 2014.
Since 17 March 2014‘Chairman’ of the ‘State Council’ of the so‐called ‘Republic of Crimea’. ‘Re‐elected’ in this position in September 2019.
17.3.2014
▼M59
3.
Rustam Ilmirovich TEMIRGALIEV
(Рустам Ильмирович ТЕМИРГАЛИЕВ)
Rustam Ilmyrovych TEMIRHALIIEV
(Рустам Iльмирович ТЕМIРГАЛIЄВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 15.8.1976
POB: Ulan-Ude, Buryat ASSR, Russian SFSR (now Russian Federation)
As former Deputy Prime Minister of Crimea, Temirgaliev played a relevant role in the decisions taken by the ‘Supreme Council’ concerning the ‘referendum’ of 16 March 2014 against the territorial integrity of Ukraine. He lobbied actively for the integration of Crimea into the Russian Federation.
On 11 June 2014, he resigned from his function as ‘First Deputy Prime Minister’ of the so-called ‘Republic of Crimea’. Former General Director of the Managing Company of the Russian-Chinese Investment Fund for Regional Development.
Remains active in supporting separatist actions or policies.
17.3.2014
▼M48
4.
Denis Valentinovich BEREZOVSKIY
(Денис Валентинович БЕРЕЗОВСКИЙ)
Denys Valentynovych BEREZOVSKYY
(Денис Валентинович БЕРЕЗОВСЬКИЙ)
Gender: male
DOB: 15.7.1974
POB: Kharkiv, Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine)
Berezovskiy was appointed commander of the Ukrainian Navy on 1 March 2014 but thereafter swore an oath to the Crimean armed forces, thereby breaking his oath to the Ukrainian Navy.
He was Deputy Commander of the Black Sea Fleet of the Russian Federation until October 2015.
Deputy Commander of the Pacific Fleet of the Russian Federation and Vice-Admiral.
17.3.2014
▼M59
5.
Aleksei Mikhailovich CHALIY
(Алексей Михайлович ЧАЛЫЙ)
Oleksiy Mykhaylovych CHALYY
(Олексiй Михайлович ЧАЛИЙ)
Gender: male
DOB: 13.6.1961
POB: Moscow, Russian Federation or Sevastopol, Ukraine
Chaliy became ‘People’s Mayor of Sevastopol’ by popular acclamation on 23 February 2014 and accepted this ‘vote’. He actively campaigned for Sevastopol to become a separate entity of the Russian Federation following a referendum on 16 March 2014. He was one of the co-signatories of the ‘treaty on Crimea’s accession to the Russian Federation’ of 18 March 2014. He was acting ‘governor’ of Sevastopol from 1 to 14 April 2014 and is a former ‘elected’ Chairman of the ‘Legislative Assembly’ of the City of Sevastopol. Former member of the ‘Legislative Assembly’ of the City of Sevastopol (until September 2019).
Remains active in supporting separatist actions or policies.
For his involvement in the annexation process, he has been awarded the Russian State order ‘For Merit to the Fatherland’ – first degree.
President of the Charitable Fund for Historical and Cultural Development of the City ‘35th Coast Battery’.
General manager of Smart Electric Networks LLC (OOO ‘Разумные электрические сети’).
17.3.2014
▼M33
6.
Pyotr Anatoliyovych ZIMA
(Пётр Анатольевич ЗИМА)
Petro Anatoliyovych ZYMA
(Петро Анатолiйович ЗИМА)
Gender: male
DOB: 18.1.1970 or 29.3.1965
POB: Artemivsk (Артемовск) (2016 renamed back to Bakhmut/Бахмут), Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine
Zima was appointed as the new head of the Crimean Security Service (SBU) on 3 March 2014 by ‘Prime Minister’ Aksyonov and accepted this appointment. He has given relevant information including a database to the Russian Intelligence Service (FSB). This included information on Euro-Maidan activists and human rights defenders of Crimea. He played a relevant role in preventing Ukraine’s authorities from controlling the territory of Crimea. On11 March 2014, the formation of an independent Security Service of Crimea was proclaimed by former SBU officers of Crimea. Active since 2015 in the Russian Intelligence Service (FSB).
17.3.2014
▼M15 —————
▼M48
8.
Sergey Pavlovych TSEKOV
(Сергей Павлович ЦЕКОВ)
Serhiy Pavlovych TSEKOV
(Сергiй Павлович ЦЕКОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 28.9.1953 or 28.8.1953
POB: Simferopol, Ukraine
As Vice Speaker of the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea, Tsekov initiated, together with Sergey Aksyonov, the unlawful dismissal of the government of the Autonomous ‘Republic of Crimea’ (ARC). He drew Vladimir Konstantinov into this endeavour, threatening him with dismissal. He publicly recognised that the MPs from Crimea were the initiators of inviting Russian soldiers to take over the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea. He was one of the first Crimean Leaders to ask in public for the annexation of Crimea to Russia.
Member of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation from the so-called ‘Republic of Crimea’ since 2014, reappointed in September 2019. Member of the Council of the Federation Committee on Foreign Affairs.
17.3.2014
▼M69
9.
Viktor Alekseevich OZEROV
(Виктор Алексеевич ОЗЕРОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 5.1.1958
POB: Abakan, Khakassia, Russian Federation
Former Chairman of the Security and Defence Committee of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation.
On 1 March 2014, Ozerov, on behalf of the Security and Defence Committee of the Federation Council, publicly supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
In July 2017, he filed his resignation as the Chairman of the Security and Defence Committee. He continued to be a member of the Council and a member of the Committee on internal regulation and parliamentary affairs.
On 10 October 2017, by means of decree N 372-SF, Ozerov was included in the temporary commission of the Federation Council on protection of state sovereignty and prevention of interference in the internal affairs of the Russian Federation.
His mandate in the Federation Council expired in September 2019. Consultant of the Foundation Rospolitika since October 2019.
Currently, he is Deputy Head of the Consulting Centre “Tactical Solutions Agency” in the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration and Chairman of the Coordinating Council of the Non-State Sphere of Security of the Russian Federation.
17.3.2014
10.
Vladimir Michailovich DZHABAROV
(Владимир Михайлович ДЖАБАРОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 29.9.1952
POB: Samarkand, Uzbekistan
First Deputy-Chairman of the International Affairs Committee of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation.
On 1 March 2014 Dzhabarov, on behalf of the International Affairs Committee of the Federation Council, publicly supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
On 22 February 2022, Dzhabarov supported, in the Federation Council, the ratification of the government decisions on the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Donetsk People’s Republic” and the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Luhansk People’s Republic”.
On 22 February 2022, Dzhabarov supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
On 4 October 2022, Dzhabarov supported, in the Federation Council, the legislation to annex the Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions of Ukraine.
17.3.2014
11.
Andrei Aleksandrovich KLISHAS
(Андрей Александрович КЛИШАС)
Gender: male
DOB: 9.11.1972
POB: Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg), Russian Federation
Chairman of the Committee on Constitutional Law and State Building of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation.
On 1 March 2014 Klishas publicly supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine. In public statements Klishas sought to justify a Russian military intervention in Ukraine by claiming that “the Ukrainian President supports the appeal of the Crimean authorities to the President of the Russian Federation on landing an all-encompassing assistance in defence of the citizens of Crimea”.
On 22 February 2022, Klishas supported, in the Federation Council, the ratification of the government decisions of the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Donetsk People’s Republic” and the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Luhansk People’s Republic”.
On 22 February 2022, Klishas supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
On 4 October 2022, Klishas supported, in the Federation Council, the legislation to annex the Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions of Ukraine.
17.3.2014
12.
Nikolai Ivanovich RYZHKOV (Николай Иванович РЫЖКОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 28.9.1929
POB: Dyleevka, Donetsk region, Ukrainian SSR, now Ukraine
Member of the Committee for federal issues, regional politics and the North of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation.
On 1 March 2014 Ryzhkov publicly supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
For his involvement in the annexation process, in 2014 he was awarded with Russian State order “For Merit to the Fatherland” – first degree.
On 22 February 2022, Ryzhkov supported, in the Federation Council, the ratification of the government decisions of the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Donetsk People’s Republic” and the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Luhansk People’s Republic”.
On 22 February 2022, Ryzhkov supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
On 4 October 2022, Ryzhkov supported, in the Federation Council, the legislation to annex the Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions of Ukraine.
17.3.2014
▼M33 —————
▼M69
14.
Aleksandr Borisovich TOTOONOV
(Александр Борисович ТОТООНОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 3.4.1957
POB: Ordzhonikidze (Vladikavkaz), North Ossetia, Russian Federation
Aleksandr Totoonov is a Member of the Parliament of North Ossetia-Alania and owner of the company “Southern Garden”. Former Member of the Committee of International Affairs of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation. His duties as a Member of the Council of the Russian Federation ended in September 2017.
Former First Deputy Chair of the Parliament of North Ossetia.
On 1 March 2014 Totoonov publicly supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
17.3.2014
▼M21 —————
▼M69
16.
Sergei Mikhailovich MIRONOV
(Сергей Михайлович МИРОНОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 14.2.1953
POB: Pushkin, Leningrad region, Russian Federation
Member of the Council of the State Duma; Leader of Fair Russia faction in the State Duma of the Russian Federation.
Initiator of the bill allowing Russian Federation to admit in its composition, under the pretext of protection of Russian citizens, territories of a foreign country without the consent of that country or an international treaty.
On 15 February 2022, Mironov supported, in the State Duma, the resolution asking President Vladimir Putin to recognise the Ukrainian regions Donetsk and Luhansk as independent states.
On 22 February 2022 Mironov supported, in the State Duma, the ratification of the government decisions of the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Donetsk People’s Republic” and the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Luhansk People’s Republic”.
On 3 October 2022, Mironov supported, in the State Duma, the legislation to annex the Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions of Ukraine.
17.3.2014
17.
Sergei Vladimirovich ZHELEZNYAK
(Сергей Владимирович ЖЕЛЕЗНЯК)
Gender: male
DOB: 30.7.1970
POB: St Petersburg (former Leningrad), Russian Federation
Former Deputy Speaker of the State Duma of the Russian Federation.
Actively supported the use of Russian Armed Forces in Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea. He led personally the demonstration in support of the use of Russian Armed Forces in Ukraine.
Former Deputy Chairperson and former member of the State Duma Committee on International Affairs.
Former member of the Presidium of the General Council of the United Russia party.
17.3.2014
18.
Leonid Eduardovich SLUTSKI
(Леонид Эдуардович СЛУЦКИЙ)
Gender: male
DOB: 4.1.1968
POB: Moscow, Russian Federation
Former Chairman of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Committee of the State Duma of the Russian Federation (member of the LDPR).
Actively supported use of Russian Armed Forces in Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea.
Chairman of the LDPR party, Head of the State Duma LDPR faction and Chairperson of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the State Duma of the Russian Federation.
On 15 February 2022, Slutski supported, in the State Duma, the resolution asking President Vladimir Putin to recognise Ukrainian regions Donetsk and Luhansk as independent states.
On 22 February 2022, Slutski supported, in the State Duma, the ratification of the government decisions of the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Donetsk People’s Republic” and the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Luhansk People’s Republic”.
On 3 October 2022, Slutski supported, in the State Duma, the legislation to annex the Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions of Ukraine.
17.3.2014
▼M48
19.
Aleksandr Viktorovich VITKO
(Александр Викторович ВИТКО)
Gender: male
DOB: 13.9.1961
POB: Vitebsk, Belarusian SSR (now Belarus)
Former Commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Admiral.
Responsible for commanding Russian forces that have occupied Ukrainian sovereign territory.
Former Chief of Staff and First Deputy Commander in Chief of the Russian Navy.
17.3.2014
▼M33
20.
Anatoliy Alekseevich SIDOROV
(Анатолий Алексеевич СИДОРОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 2.7.1958
POB: Siva, Perm region, USSR (now Russian Federation)
Former Commander, Russia’s Western Military District, units of which are deployed in Crimea. He was responsible for part of the Russian military presence in Crimea which is undermining the sovereignty of the Ukraine and assisted the Crimean authorities in preventing public demonstrations against moves towards a referendum and incorporation into Russia. Since November 2015 Chief of the Joint Staff of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO).
17.3.2014
21.
Aleksandr Viktorovich GALKIN
(Александр Викторович ГАЛКИН)
Gender: male
DOB: 22.3.1958
POB: Ordzhonikidze (Vladikavkaz), North Ossetian ASSR, USSR (now Russian Federation)
Former Commander of Russia’s Southern Military District (‘SMD’), the forces of which are in Crimea; the Black Sea Fleet comes under Galkin’s command; much of the force movement into Crimea has come through the SMD.
SMD forces are deployed in Crimea. He is responsible for part of the Russian military presence in Crimea which is undermining the sovereignty of Ukraine and assisted the Crimean authorities in preventing public demonstrations against moves towards a referendum and incorporation into Russia. Additionally the Black Sea Fleet falls within the District’s control.
Currently employed by the Central apparatus of the Russian Ministry of Defence. Aide to the Minister of Defence since 19 January 2017.
17.3.2014
▼M69
22.
Dmitry Olegovich ROGOZIN
(Дмитрий Олегович РОГОЗИН)
Gender: male
DOB: 21.12.1963
POB: Moscow, Russian Federation
Former Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation. Publicly called for the annexation of Crimea.
Former General Director in a State corporation.
Heads a group of military advisers, providing military-technical support to the military personnel of Donetsk and Luhansk.
21.3.2014
23.
Sergey Yurievich GLAZYEV
(Сергей Юрьевич ГЛАЗЬЕВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 1.1.1961
POB: Zaporizhzhia, former Ukrainian SSR, now Ukraine
Former adviser to the President of the Russian Federation. Publicly called for the annexation of Crimea and supports the war against Ukraine.
Since October 2019 Minister for Integration and Macroeconomics in the Eurasian Economic Commission.
21.3.2014
24.
Valentina Ivanova MATVIYENKO (born TYUTINA)
(Валентина Ивановна МАТВИЕНКО (born ТЮТИНА))
Gender: female
DOB: 7.4.1949
POB: Shepetovka, Khmelnitsky (Kamenets-Podolsky) region (Ukrainian SSR), now Ukraine
Speaker of the Federation Council. On 1 March 2014, publicly supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
On 22 February 2022, Matviyenko supported, in the Federation Council, the ratification of the government decisions of the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Donetsk People’s Republic” and the “Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the Russian Federation and the Luhansk People’s Republic”.
On 22 February 2022, Matviyenko supported, in the Federation Council, the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
On 4 October 2022, Matviyenko supported, in the Federation Council, the legislation to annex the Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions of Ukraine.
21.3.2014
25.
Sergei Evgenevich NARYSHKIN
(Сергей Евгеньевич НАРЫШКИН)
Gender: male
DOB: 27.10.1954
POB: St Petersburg (former Leningrad), Russian Federation
Former Speaker of the State Duma. Publicly supported the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine. Publicly supported the Russia-Crimea reunification treaty and the related federal constitutional law.
Currently Director of the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation as of October 2016. Permanent member and Secretary of the Security Council of the Russian Federation.
Has publicly supported the independence of Donetsk and Luhansk and their annexation.
21.3.2014
▼M33
26.
Dmitry Konstantinovich KISELYOV
Dmitrii Konstantinovich KISELEV
(Дмитрий Константинович КИСЕЛЁВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 26.4.1954
POB: Moscow, Russian Federation
Appointed by Presidential Decree on 9 December 2013 Head of the Russian Federal State news agency ‘Rossiya Segodnya’.
Central figure of the government propaganda supporting the deployment of Russian forces in Ukraine.
21.3.2014
▼M48
27.
Alexander Mihailovich NOSATOV
(Александр Михайлович НОСАТОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 27.3.1963
POB: Sevastopol, Ukrainian SSR, (now Ukraine)
Former Commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Rear-Admiral.
Responsible for commanding Russian forces that have occupied Ukrainian sovereign territory.
Currently Admiral, Chief of the Main Staff of the Russian Navy.
21.3.2014
▼M36
28.
Valery Vladimirovich KULIKOV (Валерий Владимирович КУЛИКОВ)
Gender: male
DOB: 1.9.1956
POB: Zaporozhye, Ukrainian SSR, now Ukraine
Former Deputy-Commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Rear Admiral.
Responsible for commanding Russian forces that have occupied Ukrainian sovereign territory.
On 26 September 2017, with a Decree of the President of Russian Federation, he was dismissed from this post and from military service.
Former member of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation, representing the annexed City of Sevastopol. Currently serves as deputy in the ‘Legislative Assembly’ of the City of Sevastopol.
21.3.2014
▼M34
29.
Vladislav Yurievich SURKOV
(Владислав Юрьевич СУРКОВ)
The sound of silence in Boris Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago Текст научной статьи по специальности «Языкознание и литературоведение»
DOI: https://doi.org/10.25146/2587-7844-2019-8-4-29
UDK 82.09
the sound of silence in boris Pasternak's doctor zhivagq
D.L. Vukas (Zagreb, Croatia)
Abstract
Influence of classical music and composers like Scriabin is clearly visible in the syntax and phonol ogy of Pasternak's poetical language. His "composer's ear" [cf. in De Mallac, 1981] - profound sense of rhythm, harmony, sound, but also silence - is traceable throughout literary language in his famous novel Doctor Zhivago, one of the greatest novels about the fall of the Imperial Russia, and the end of the monarchy in war and revolution ever written. This paper investigates some aspects of the relationship between art, violence, and revolution, i.e. between imaginary world of revolutionary and postrevo-lutionary (Soviet) Russia in Doctor Zhivago, and the ways in which the novel captivates those events through sounds of a crowd and city in turmoil, but even more importantly - through intense moments of silence. Departing from the premises that sounds and silence are physical states, but also aesthetic and cultural devices, the aim of this paper is to answer the following questions. What is the meaning of antithesis of sound and silence as a metaphor of "double" meaning in Pasternak's Doctor Zhivago where silence indicates violence, war, and revolution as well as contains in itself the energy of creation, creative impulse? Especially in relation to "paradoxical materiality" [Miller, 2007] of silence, where this state of complete muteness and stillness represents simultaneously emptiness - but also plentitude, weightlessness - but also heaviness, the paper analyzes the symbolism of silence in Pasternak's novel. Is Pasternak's profound uses of silence signifier of an amputation of Doctor Zhivago's protagonists from the world of violent revolutionary Russia into their own, private, intimate worlds of introspection, or it is rather a signifier of their resistance against popular representation of revolution as universal politi cal and cultural project of emancipation and freedom for all? In other words, can Pasternak's "rhetoric of silence" in Doctor Zhivago be understood as a state of plentitude and knowing (S. Sontag), i.e. as a method of radical speech of silenced and whispering protagonists rather than of their muteness as a consequence of their (bourgeois) laid-backness and passivity?
Keywords: Boris Pasternak, artistic biography, Doctor Zhivago, speech, silence, metaphor of silence, modernism, history, war, revolution.
1
"Everything that can be thought at all can be thought clearly. Everything that can be said at all can be said clearly. But not everything that can be thought can be said." (Ludwig Wittgenstein)
"We go on telling stories in the way we know; and on the other side, if anything, is silence. But we feel that if our death and its silence did come at last, they would probably come, like Malone's, inside a story of our own telling." (Martha Nussbaum)
"We die. That may be the meaning of life. But we do language. That may be the measure of our lives." (Toni Morrison)
In his thought-provoking essay Metaphors of Silence, Ihab Hassan writes that "men live perpetually in the shadow of their histories," that "what they call the present is already biography," and that "criticism, weighted by its
own skepticism, lags still behind the literature of its day" [Hassan, 1970, p. 81]. In so far as "the frontier of criticism stands somewhere between us and prehistory" [p. 81], Hassan maintains that "the future of criticism [is] to engage new sounds of silence" [p. 81], where silence stands for, in Hassan's understanding, the universal metaphor of our times. By such metaphors Hassan includes different forms of anti-art (pop art, process art, funk art, computer art, concept art etc.), i.e. art as a game, or discontinuous form (the question of interruption and discontinuity is what Hassan is interested in when he writes about silence), and art which deny language and form to the extent in which it refuses to be interpreted. In so far as the great deal of literature after Holocaust is to some extent concerned with a question about the limits of language in expressing deepest experiences, silence should indeed be one of the central interests of contemporary scholarship.
But how to talk about something absent, or that is at least not visibly present?
The question intrigued Yuri Lotman in The Structure of the Artistic Text: how is the information carried by the minus device, by an unused element, related to the text's structure? What is "the structural role of the zéro-problème" [Lotman, 1977, p. 51], and what is the semantic significance of pause? Specifically, this paper aims to measure the information carried by artistic silence in the context of Pasternak's Doctor Zhivago, the novel which is often attributed as the greatest novel about revolutions, Russian civil war and its aftermath, ever written. The main aim is to offer a reading of a novel from one of its main paired oppositions, that of sound/voice and silence. This problematic field is also interesting at the background of Pasternak's position in Russian and world literary cannon: Pasternak is known primarily through the musicality of his artistic language - in his younger age, before studying philosophy at Marburg University, he planned to be a musician. Family friend Scriabin had a tremendous influence on him, and Pasternak entered literary circles with modern poetry, where music was more than a theme: the very structure of his early literary works was based on his "composer's ear" (Christopher Barnes). Russian scholar Boris Gasparov argues that, for him, „music was not part of his external experiences that was used as a material for his literary works - his first artistic attempts were at making music. Therefore, the key to understanding this problematic field is not in illuminating the ways in which principles of musical aesthetics influenced the structure of his verbal art. Pursuit of musical theme in Pasternak shouldn't be directed towards its material but towards its form: the composition of his works" [Gasparov, 1989, p. 318]. It is thus no surprise that Doctor Zhivago distinguishes itself by its rhythm, its sounds: wolves howling are one such "trademark" of the novel. On the other side, perhaps due to the musicality of Pasternak's artistic language, it often slips research attention that silence is so often attached to the central character of the novel that this "minus-device" (Yuri Lotman), this absence, carries particular meanings and "becomes an organic part of the graphically fixed text" [Lotman, 1977, p. 51]. Silence can also be seen as one of the metaphors that, by being a powerful "speech in silence," could be observed and understood as a powerful form of aes-
thetic reaction of Russian intelligentsia on political, social and cultural changes after the Revolution1. In that context, I ask can Pasternak's "rhetoric of silence" in Doctor Zhivago be understood as a state of plentitude and knowing (as claimed by Susan Sontag), i.e. as a method of radical speech of silenced and whispering protagonists rather than of their muteness as a consequence of their (bourgeois) laid-backness and passivity? What kind of knowledge it provides? If silence is not merely a rhetorical feature, but a form of figurative speech, what is its symbolical meaning in Doctor Zhivago? To that end, is it possible to approach silence as an organizing principle of Pasternak's novel?
2. There is such thing as the world's quietest place, it is located in Minnesota, and it is Guinness-certified. It is called "an anechoic chamber." It is a room "designed to completely absorb reflections of either sound or electromagnetic waves" (Anechoic chamber), as the word "anechoic," meaning "echo-free" suggests. What I find interesting is that it became almost a mythological place, with different stories, often highly disturbing, describing the experience of "survivors" of chamber. For example, one report says that "It doesn't seem like a potential torture chamber until those vault doors close behind you and the lights go off. That's when the noise level plummets to -9 decibels - quiet bedrooms and libraries are around 30 decibels. With no sounds coming from your surroundings, your attention turns to your own body, which suddenly seems to be a cacophony of digestive gurgles, whistley breathing, and a heartbeat that could be the intro to Black Sabbath's 'Iron Man.' Orfield Labs owner Steve Orfield likes to challenge visitors to endurance tests in the chamber. Most can't stay longer than about 20 minutes and emerge disoriented and unsettled. Orfield himself has trouble staying in the room beyond the 30-minute mark" [Morton, 2014]. As later experiences testified, the claims about universal torture nature of chamber is mythological - people were staying inside for longer than an hour, some of them really enjoyed the time of peacefulness, and used an opportunity to be fully connected with their selves, and with listening to their bodies. What I find interesting is exactly this mythologization of silence as something vicious, depraved, wrong, malicious, evil, as something that is completely unnatural for human beings. The logic behind this mythologization is, I believe, quite simple: absence of sounds signifies absence of space and time coordinates, in other words, the experience is closest to coffin-like feeling. So, generally speaking, silence is equivalent to death. Perhaps experiencing silence in an anechoic chamber is
A brief overview of existing research shows that silence is generally associated with Other and otherness, or, to be more precise, with socially marginalized subjectivities and political rhetoric (minority groups, migrants, elderlies, often women). In her study Can Subaltern Speak (1988), Gayatry Spivak emphasized that the right to speak is not equally open to everyone, i.e. to the voice / silent dialectics as a form of powerful national, race, class, and gender stratification. Therefore, Spivak argues that a postcolonial intellectual is obliged to be interested in "speech of silence": „Part of our 'unlearning' project is to articulate that ideological formation - by measuring silences, if necessary - into the object of investigation" [Spivak, 1994, p. 92]. Silence is ambivalent also in psychological terms: on one hand, it is a tool for commemoration, honor and respect ("a moment of silence"), i.e. a gesture of sympathy and respect, on the other hand, it can be a technique of torture ("silent treatment"), of isolation of individuals in their moral existence, i.e. a central medium which makes discipline power sustainable [Foucault, 1995, p. 177, 236-237].
closest to how an individual can depict, or imagine, his own death, otherwise unimaginable as it is impossible to see our own face without a mirror. Silence, especially in dark spaces, confronts us with the awareness that, in Le Breton's words, "The reality principle is fragile" [Le Breton, 2017, p. 59]: "Silence and darkness complement one another, depriving us of any sense of direction, leaving is to our own devices. They make us aware of our limitations" [p. 59]. Similar to darkness, "silence is also associated with meaninglessness and therefore with the absence of familiar signs, with the threat of being swallowed up in the void" [p. 60].
If silence makes us aware of our limitations, revolution as historical event is based on the opposite premises: that a human being has no limitations whatsoever. Cultural representations and imaginations correspond to the political imaginary of this event - it is a triumph of a new life in all its spheres: the new man, the new social relations, the new economy, the new past, present and future. Therefore, in representing Revolution, cultural texts (literature, film, music) employed sounds to a greater extent. As A. Blok writes in his essay Intelligentsia and Revolution soon after the Revolution, artist's duty was to create new literary forms and new language by grasping an extraordinary music of the Revolution [Blok, 2007]. His revolutionary poem Twelve (1918) is one example of such imagination:
"(...) Rat-a-tat-tat!
Around them fires, and fires, and fires.
Rifle straps on shoulders hang.
Hold to the revolutionary pace!
The tireless enemy never sleeps!
Comrade, hold on to your gun, be brave!
Let's put a bullet into Holy Russia -" [Blok, 1918].
Vladimir Mayakovsky's poem Our March - another one:
"Is there a gold more heavenly than ours?
Can the wasp of a bullet sting us?
Our songs are our weapons;
Ringing voices - our gold. (...)" [Mayakovsky, 1918].
However, although the fear of silence seems universal and transnational, it is, in fact, historically and culturally variable. In his book Language and Silence. Essays on Language, Literature and the Inhuman, George Steiner writes that this fear was brought by a Christian sense of the world - at a certain point in history, Western tradition placed primacy of the word: "The primacy of the word, of that which can be spoken and communicated in discourse, is characteristic of the Greek and Judaic
genius and carried over into Christianity. The classic and the Christian sense of the world strive to order reality within the governance of language. (...) The code of Justinian, the Summa of Aquinas, the world chronicles and compendia of medieval literature, the Divina Commedia, are attempts at total containment. They bear solemn witness to the belief that all truth and realness - with the exception of a small, queer margin at the very top - can be housed inside the walls of language" [Steiner, 1986, p. 13-14, emphasis ours]. Roughly from 17th century, "the sphere of language encompassed nearly the whole of experience and reality" [p. 24]. From futurism in cultural terms, and October Revolution and First World War in historical terms, language "comprises a narrower domain": "It no longer articulates, or is relevant to, all major modes of action, thought, and sensibility. Large areas of meaning and praxis now belong to such non-verbal languages as mathematics, symbolic logic, and formulas of chemical or electronic relation. Other areas belong to the sub-languages or anti-languages of non-objective art and musique concrete. The world of words has shrunk. One cannot talk of transfinite numbers except mathematically; one should not, suggests Wittgenstein, talk of ethics or aesthetics within the presently available categories of discourse. And it is, I think, exceedingly difficult to speak meaningfully of a Jackson Pollock painting or a composition by Stockhausen. The circle has narrowed tremendously, for was there anything under heaven, be it science, metaphysics, art, or music, of which a Shakespeare, a Donne, and a Milton could not speak naturally, to which their words did not have natural access?" [p. 24-25]. The question is complicated by another factor: Steiner here refers not only to the "non-art" forms, mentioned previously in the context of Hassan's writings, but also to the inexpress-ibility, unrepresentability of the deepest emotional experiences, when silence serves as exclusive, universal and perhaps only possible ethically righteous answer to the last century's historical traumas. It is worth noticing a kind of inverse proportionality between historical events and artistic articulation of personal experiences of those events, which corresponds to Steiner's claim that, indeed, not all realness can be housed inside the walls of language [p. 14]. To that end, it is interesting to repeat Picard's observation that "roughly since the French Revolution man has taken note only of the loud facts of history. He has overlooked the things of silence which are just as important" [Picard, 1948, p. 73]. The inverse proportionality is related to the fact that alongside the loudness of historical events, artists were "silencing" art works, they were reducing them to emptiness. Silence as art device occupies a key position in modern art: "Modernist arts have engaged silence to an unprecedented degree. Silence, of course, has been a long-standing site of artistic, philosophical, and spiritual rumination, but it was not until the 20th century that it assumed such an extensive presence in artistic creation. As for music, silence forms a large part of the sound worlds explored by modernist composers. To be sure, silence appears prominently in works from previous periods, as in the engulfing pauses of Beethoven and Bellini, for example, but it was never mined so deeply or used to such diverse effects prior to the last century. As Salvatore Sciarrino, a master calligrapher of quiet, has
remarked: 'Sound has an intimate relationship with silence, the consciousness of that connection is new'" [Metzer, 2006, p. 334]. Reduction to silence advert our attention to Hölderlin and Rimbaud - Steiner emphasizes that these two poets were "principal masters of the modern spirit" [Steiner, 1986, p. 47]. Their silences serve as "active metaphors of the modern literary condition" [p. 47], whereas reevaluation of silence is "the most original, characteristic act of the modern spirit" [p. 48].
To conclude: symbolical meaning of silence is situated at the crossroad of theme of death and human mortality and culture of modernity. Both is symptomatic for Pasternak's prose and poetry: he was one of the leading authors of Russian literary modernity, whereas death, dying and dead occupied his lifelong attention and is mentioned so frequently in his writings that it could be argued that he observed the world from the perspective of death. Moreover, death elicits his artistic creativity and this preoccupation heavily influenced his writing. It also runs throughout Doctor Zhivago. In famous passage Yuri (whose surname, suitably, means "alive") contemplates reciprocal reinforcement between art and mortality: "In answer to the desolation brought by death to the people slowly pacing after him, he was drawn, as irresistibly as water funneling downward, to dream, to think, to work out new forms, to create beauty. More vividly than ever before he realized that art has two constant, two unending concerns: it always meditates on death and thus always creates life" [Pasternak, 1958, p. 145]2.
3. Doctor Zhivago is undoubtedly one of the most analyzed novels in world literature. At the same time, it remained one of the most puzzled literary works [Bykov, 2010, p. 720], mostly because it continuously extends the horizon of expectations beyond easily recognizable literary conventions. From unstable narrator's position (Zhivago is sometimes author's alter ego, sometimes he is the object of representation3), the inconclusiveness of the epic plot, to Yuri Zhivago's poems - the novel didn't correspond to existing genres: realistic or postrealistic genre conventions,
2 Another, and final thing that I want to emphasize before moving on to the analysis of Pasternak's acclaimed novel is that there is no such thing as pure, "raw," or absolute silence. This is something John Cage wrote about in his book Silence (originally published in 1939, and often reprinted since): „THERE IS NO SUCH THINGS AS SILENCE. GET THEE TO AN ANECHOIC CHAMBER AND HEAR THERE THY NERVOUS SYSTEM IN OPERATION AND HEAR THERE THY BLOOD IN CIRCUALTION" [Cage, 1969, p. 51; emphasis in original]. When we talk about silence we are not talking about absence (there is no such thing as pure silence as there is no such thing as empty space, Sontag 1967: IV) - we are talking about eloquence (no matter how fragile it is or might become), about something that through absence speak about presence. Max Picard, for example, writes that "Silence contains everything in itself. It is not waiting for anything, it is always wholly present in itself and it completely fills out the space in which it appears" [Picard, 1948, p. 1]. He further elaborates that "When language ceases, silence begins. But it does not begin because language ceases. The absence of language simply makes the presence of Silence more apparent" [p. ix]. Despite word has supremacy over silence (it is not silence that makes us humans), silence is not the negative condition "that set sin when the positive is removed" [p. ix]. Moreover, „Language and silence belong together: language has knowledge of silence as silence has knowledge of language" [p. x]. Similar argument is put forth in different other scholarly works: silence is the place where the language begins, and it can be a powerful voice of knowledge.
3 Croatian scholar Josip Uzarevic, for example, writes that in Doctor Zhivago „the lyrical I in The Poems of Yurii Zhivago creates the paradoxical parity of literary character (Zhivago) and author (Pasternak)". To that end, autobiographical element in Doctor Zhivago is assigned through „double fictionalization, i.e. through 'novel's character' (Zhivago) and lyrical I that seemingly belongs to that character" [Uzarevic, 2006, p. 190].
including the modern stream of consciousness technique [see Junggren, 1984, p. 228; Gasparov, 1989; Han, 2015, p. 274]. Boris Gasparov, for example, writes that "Doctor Zhivago heavily surpassed its predecessors in quantity and level of transgression in relation to the conventions of 'appropriate tone' of epic prose writing" [Gasparov, 1989, p. 316]. Fellow writers reacted in a corresponding manner. Varlam Shalamov wrote, for example, that for a long time he didn't have an opportunity to read something genuinely Russian, close to the literary works by Tolstoy, Chekhov or Dostoevsky. Pasternak's long-term friend, poet Anna Akhmatova, praised verses and genius landscapes (which are - as Akhmatova claims - more skillful than those by Turgenev or Tolstoy), but added that some parts are written so badly that they must have been created by Ol'ga Ivinskaia, Pasternak's wife at the time. Vladimir Nabokov saw Doctor Zhivago "a sorry thing, clumsy, trite and melodramatic, with stock situations, voluptuous lawyers, unbelievable girls, romantic robbers and trite coincidences" [see Hughes, 1989].
This paper proposes a novel analysis which engages in the ways history (Pasternak's novel offers complex and rich description of social and historical events in Russia and Soviet Union during turbulent long first third of 20th century, with an epilogue during Second World War and its aftermath) is translated in literary discourse through particular management of antithesis of sound (voice, noise) and silence (speaking silently, "in low voice," whispering). Considering previously mentioned different cultural meanings of silence (historical/anthropological, aesthetical, political/social), the paper attempts to examine silence as one of the key structural elements of the novel, which enables us to connect the novel more firmly to (postwar) literary modernity.
Two episodes, both taking place closer to the end of the novel, are of key importance in the analysis. In the famous episode, describing the meeting of Zhivago and Pasha Strelnikov, the latter (the most persistent revolutionary character in Pasternak's novel) speaks incoherently, "jumping from confession to confession" [Pasternak, 1958, p. 729]. Pasha "had some personal reason for talking ceaselessly" [p. 728], he was "doing everything possible to keep the conversation going, in order to avoid being alone" [p. 727-728]. Yuri Zhivago, relatively silent during passionate Strelnikov's monologue, comments that his behavior "was the disease, the revolutionary madness of the age," proving "that at heart everyone was different from his outward appearance and his words. No one had a clear conscience. Everyone could justifiably feel that he was guilty, that he was a secret criminal, an undetected impostor" [p. 729]. The episode ends with a description of Zhivago's night: he slept well, with several short, kaleidoscopic dreams of his childhood - which seemed so "detailed and logical that he took them for reality" [p. 739]. Especially one dream intrigued him: of his mother's water-color suddenly dropping from the wall, which left him aroused by a sound of breaking glass. In the morning he, however, realizes that the sound he heard in his dream he mistaken for mother's watercolor dropping was, in fact, a sound of Strelnikov shooting himself: "The snow was a red lump under his left temple where he had bled. Drops of
spurting blood what had mixed with the snow formed red beads that looked like row-anberries" [p. 741]. Silence, as this episode testifies, is not mythologized as something foreign, evil, or unnatural; quite opposite seems to be the case: sound corresponds death, it serves as the foundation of human mortality and it signifies death.
Another for this analysis important narrative episode also ends with death, or at least with its presumption and declaration. After Yuri arrived to Moscow at the beginning of NEP, he, "dressed in a grey sheepskin hat, puttees, and a worn-out army overcoat stripped of all its buttons like a convict's uniform" [p. 742], meets Marina, whose "voice was her protection, her guardian angel" [p. 764] because "no one could wish to hurt or distress a woman with such a voice" [p. 764]. During unhurried, lazy summer conversations between him and childhood friends Gordon and Dudorov, Yuri - the only one of the three who had an adequate supply of words to carry on a conversation "naturally and intelligently" [p. 767] - leaves the conversation because "it's hot and stuffy" and he needed "to get some air" [p. 770], pronouncing the following: "Microscopic forms of cardiac hemorrhages have become very frequent in recent years. (...) It's a typical modern disease. I think its causes are of a moral order. The great majority of us are required to live a life of constant, systematic duplicity. Your health is bound to be affected if, day after day, you say the opposite of what you feel, if you grovel before what you dislike and rejoice at what brings you nothing but misfortune. Our nervous system isn't just a fiction, it's a part of our physical body, and our soul exists in space and is inside us, like the teeth in our mouth. It can't be forever violated with impunity" [p. 771].
Gordon, his loyal friend from childhood, answers that he "got unused to simple human words, they don't reach you any more" [p. 771]. Yuri abandons Marina and their daughters, leaving behind, in fact, everything but his poetry. Soon after, he passes away.
It is important to emphasize that both deaths - of Yuri Zhivago and Pasha Antipov Strelnikov (in anthropological terms, death is the state of final and eternal silence) -are preceded by a particular dreamlike sound, or the word (in contrast to what implies the example of the chamber mentioned at the beginning of this analysis, where silence was associated with death and radical disorientation). In both quoted examples the act of listening of other people words brings protagonist to conclude that the words are, regardless of their content, empty sounds (not only that silence in both examples is "fuller of meanings" than words - these two examples showcase that language becomes emaciated if it loses its connection with silence, Picard, 1948, p. ix). On the other side, the voice is utilized to express illness of time, of a whole revolutionary and postrevolutionary Soviet generation. In those constellations, silence reverberates healthiness, fullness, and true content. Such a semantic series suggests that Pasternak's novel reverts stereotypical social, cultural, and literary script: silence, rather than sound, represents a positive pole of paired opposition.
Complexity of the problematic field is especially intriguing because novel's creator, Boris Pasternak, and novel's main character, Yuri Zhivago, share similar increased sensitivity to sounds, voices, and auditory stimuli in general. In that context it should be mentioned that auditory element is often central component in charac-
terization of novel's protagonists. For example, when Yuri hears his son crying for the first time, he concludes: "Yuri Andreievich had already decided that his child was to be called Alexander in honor of his father-in-law. For some reason he imagined that the voice he had singled out was that of his son; perhaps it was because this particular cry had its own character and seemed to foreshadow the future personality and destiny of a particular human being; it had its own soundcoloring, which included the child's name, Alexander, so Yuri Andreievich imagined. He was not mistaken. It turned out later that this had in fact been Sashenka's voice. It was the first thing he had known about his son" [Pasternak, 1958, p. 272-273]. The novel often offers detailed descriptions of other characters through speech manners, way of talking and communication with other characters in general (see, for example, descriptions of speech styles by Gordon and Dudorov, p. 278-279, and Alexander Alexandrov-ich, p. 284-285), and this gives an in-depth idea of their personalities to the reader. Lara's character reinforces this literary device in a more subtle way. As I have mentioned earlier, Marina's distinctive feature is her voice: in the context of pivotal space credited ta o audible elements in Zhivago's perception and understanding of the world, one gets an impression that he couldn't - after cosmic, unconditional but also unattainable relationship with Lara - have established an irrevocable relationship with anybody else except her, exclusively because of her unique voice. Lara, on the other side, is associated with whiteness (for example, her "strong white arms," p. 599) in both direct and figurative meaning of a word. But it often slips under the readers' radar that Yuri became fully aware of his feelings of love to Lara, and of his readiness to follow the feeling, after he recognized that the mystical woman's voice he heard in his muddled dream, the voice "sounding in the air," "deep, soft, husky" [p. 451], actually belongs to Lara, then a librarian in Varykino: "She was sitting with her back to him, speaking in a low voice with the sneezing librarian, who stood leaning over her. (...) His first impulse was to get up and speak to her. But a shyness and lack of simplicity, entirely alien to his nature, had, in the past, crept into his relationship with her and now held him back. He decided not to disturb her and not to interrupt his work. To keep away from the temptation of looking at her he turned his chair sideways, so that its back was almost against his table; he tried to concentrate on his books, holding one in his hand and another on his knees. But his thoughts had wandered far from his studies. Suddenly he realized that the voice he had once heard in a dream on a winter night in Varykino had been Antipova's. The discovery dumfounded him, and startling his neighbors he jerked his chair back to be able to see Antipova. He began to look at her. (...) His mind stopped darting from subject to subject. He could not help smiling; Antipova's presence affected him the same way as it had affected the nervous librarian" [p. 465-466]. It is worth remembering that he was so bothered with the question of whom does the voice belong to that he even tried to detach himself from Tonia in a symbolical gesture: "I thought it might be Tonia's, and that I had become so used to her that I no longer heard the tone of her voice. I tried to forget that she was my wife and to become sufficiently detached
to find out" [p. 452]. While Yuri usually gets tired from conversations with other novel's protagonists, and therefore he often hides behind the silence (he had spent a term of his four-year course in the dissecting room, surrounded by bones, and quietly dissecting corpses, trying, perhaps, to work through his own childhood trauma of having to bury his mother in an early age, p. 106), he enjoys "subdued" [p. 630] conversations with Lara. Not only that: the very fact that they were spoken in low voice made them "as full of meaning as the dialogues of Plato" [p. 630]. Because -and that is how the meanings are produced in Pasternak's novel from the point of view of the antithesis of sound and silence - loud revolutionary times render sound and voice obsolete, and only silent words can be genuinely significant, meaningful and far-reaching. In that analytical framework, Lara is not only the metaphor of Russia that was "his incomparable mother; famed far and wide, martyred, stubborn, extravagant, crazy, irresponsible, adored, Russia with her eternally splendid, and disastrous, and unpredictable adventures" [p. 624]; of Russia's tradition and cultural memory that were lost in revolutionary blizzard. She is also life's (i. e. Zhivago's) and existence's "representative, (...) expression, in her the inarticulate principle of existence became sensitive and capable of speech" [p. 624]. After all, almost at the beginning of a novel she rediscovers to the reader the purpose of her life: "She was here on earth to grasp the meaning of its wild enchantment and to call each thing by its right name, or, if this were not within her power, to give birth out of love for life to successors who would do it in her place" [p. 123]. To that end, let us not forget that the story about Lara's post-Yuriatin life was told to Dudorov and Gordon by the local laundress Tania, Lara's and Yuri's daughter he never knew he had.
It is important to foreground that the antithesis of sound and silence cannot be analyzed outside tense relationship between the literary work, its aesthetic values and claims, and the historical context of revolution, war and violence. Interrelatedness and mutual constitutiveness of artistic and historical claims of Pasternak's novel is also implied by other examples in the novel - seemingly relaxed chatting is often an expression of inability of an individual to process witnessed historical violence. For example, when Nikolai Nikolaevich, Tonia's father, bursts into Yuri's room with information about a battle in the street between the cadets that support the Provisional Government and the garnison soldiers who support the Bolsheviks, he - despite his intention to bring Yuri to the street to witness the grand history in the making with his own eyes - remains immovable because of his endless and compulsive talking: "Nikolai Nikolaievich burst into the room as impetuously as the wind coming through the open window. 'They're fighting in the street,' he reported. '(...) Hurry up, Yura! Put your coat on, let's go. You've got to see it. This is history. This happens once in a lifetime.' But he stayed talking for a couple of hours" [p. 301].
The novel's epilogue offers resolution of story's action through further emphasis of paired silence / sound opposition. Namely, as tragic and self-contradictory it seemingly appears, the Second World War brings salvation because "its real horrors, its real dangers, its menace of real death were a blessing compared with the inhuman reign of
the lie, and they brought relief because they broke the spell of the dead letter" [p. 809]. Strelnikov and Zhivago are dead; destinies of female protagonists, Tonia and Lara, remain relatively unknown. Former loud blabbers (and former Gulag's prisoners), Misha Gordon and Nika Dudorov4, strolling under the trees in silence, at the very height of the Second World War, in 1943, speak in low voice after hearing Tania's story. Gordon concludes that "It has often happened in history that a lofty ideal has degenerated into crude materialism. Thus Greece gave way to Rome, and the Russian Enlightenment has become the Russian Revolution. There is a great difference between the two periods. Blok says somewhere: 'We, the children of Russia's terrible years.' Blok meant this in a metaphorical, figurative sense. The children were not children, but the sons, the heirs, the intelligentsia, and the terrors were not terrible but sent from above, apocalyptic; that's quite different. Now the metaphorical has become literal, children are children and the terrors are terrible, there you have the difference" [p. 826].
4. How this particular reading of Pasternak's novel from the perspective of sound and silence contributes to the existing readings of Doctor Zhivago?
Firstly, the uses of silence in Doctor Zhivago show that silence can be, indeed, as emphasized by Susan Sontag, "highly social gesture." Sontag writes that silence is "a form of speech (...) and an element in a dialogue" [Sontag, 1967, p. IV] that becomes particularly relevant under particular historical and cultural circumstances, when the world "refuses" to be explained through language. In the times of "the glittering phrase, first the Tsarist, then the revolutionary" [Pasternak, 1958, p. 645], a word, written or said, could literally kill: by writing Doctor Zhivago in post-Second World War times, Pasternak daily committed acts of suicide. To that end, Sontag's explanation of political uses of silence offers a valuable insight: Pasternak's aesthetic gesture is simultaneously political because, on one side, language is "a privileged metaphor for expressing the mediated character of art-making and the art-work" [Sontag, 1967, p. VIII], on the other, however, "language is the most impure, the most contaminated, the most exhausted of all the materials out of which
4 It should be mentioned that they are Zhivago's childhood friends, which is important because Pasternak's novel foregrounds the idea that wars and revolutions are continuation (with real weapons instead of wooded ones) of childhood war games. In first drafts, the novel was even entitled Boys and Girls (Malchiki i devochki). Final version begins with description of a funeral of Yurii's mother and his childhood, in which prominent place in cultivating boyhood belonged to the war games. The theme of revolution is narratively introduced for the first time through the eyes of young Pavel Antipov (Lara attributes him with his childhood nickname Pasha or Patulia, which brings back a memory of Pavel Korchagin, the main character of socialist realist famous Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered), who, as a little boy, witness revolutionary events. It is worth noting that auditory element occupies a prominent role in its description: "The snow fell thicker and thicker. When the dragoons charged, the marchers at the rear first knew nothing of it. A swelling noise rolled back to them as of great crowds shouting 'Hurrah,' and individual screams of 'Help!' and 'Murder' were lost in the uproar. Almost at the same moment, and borne, as it were, on this wave of sound along the narrow corridor that formed as the crowd divided, the heads and manes of horses, and their saber-swinging riders, rode by swiftly and silently. Half a platoon galloped through, turned, re-formed, and cut into the tail of the procession. The massacre began" [p. 61-62]. Established link between boyhood, i.e. immature masculinity, and violent historical events, is relevant for understanding complex Zhivago's viewpoint on war and revolution, but also in relation to the constructive role attributed to silence in the semantic series sound - revolution / war - immature masculinity. In narrower context of Pasternak's poetic biography, prominent role of silence could be read as Pasternak's commentary on his creative biography, where silence symbolizes his creative self-renewal. In a letter to Ol'ga Freidenberg, he writes that he "finally begun to write a large prose novel. That is my first major piece of art" [Han, 2015, p. 273; see also Gasparov, 1989, p. 317].
art is made" [p. VIII]. Sontag's emphasis on dual character of language - its abstractness and its "falseness" in history, where language is "experienced not merely as something shared but something corrupted, weighed down by historical accumulation" [p. VIII], is especially relevant in the context of abovementioned Pasternak's profound sense of language. The sense of the work of art as entrapped, diminished when it is given articulate form [Steiner, 1986, p. 49] connects Pasternak to other modernist writers for whom the word, as Steiner noted, "may be losing something of its humane genius" [p. 49]. In that vein, silence in Pasternak's novel should be understood as "a metaphor for a cleansed, noninterfering vision," i.e. "to a speech beyond silence," "certifying the absence of renunciation of thought" [Sontag, 1967, p. XIII].
Apart from this, predominantly pragmatic use of silence, it is important to emphasize that especially in revolutionary times, the "uselessness" of silence becomes more apparent (because it simply is, it cannot do or make anything in the cacophony of revolutionary sounds). October Revolution was culturally remembered and stored as one of the loudest moments in Russian history. In that respect, one could argue that the uselessness of silence (in historical terms) in Pasternak's novel is somewhat close to "holy uselessness" (the phrase is borrowed from Picard, 1948, p. 3) because Zhivago's silence is in fact the key place in which his profound and finite metamorphosis into poet takes place: as if the novel suggests that the uselessness in historical sense is prerequisite for artistic ability to create.
Here it is worth remembering that Doctor Zhivago was refused publication in the Soviet Union not only because of its seemingly negative stance on the October Revolution, but also because Pasternak (alias Zhivago in the novel) was reluctant to talk politics, and to analyze the reasons behind historical events. In the novel, for example, New Economic Politics is described with only one short sentence: it was „the most ambiguous and hypocritical of all Soviet periods" [Pasternak, 1958, p. 742]. All protagonists of his novel are highly inflicted by historical events (wars and revolutions shape all spheres of their lives), they eyewitness the history, but they nevertheless behave as if they are not interested at all in addressing the reasons (economic, political, social, cultural) which brought to the grand political changes in a first place. The common reader, used to detailed treatment of historical events (such as in Tolstoy's War and Peace)5, was not only intrigued, but also irritated by Pasternak's historiographical negligence.
The conclusion that this analysis enables is that the silence was the place where seemingly neglected historical and aesthetic claims of the novel meet - silence is the place where historical becomes articulated from the perspective of an individual, where the boundaries between fiction and historical reality are not as firm as they initially seem, where Revolution becomes "entrapped" in art, and the process of re-evaluating its historical significance begins. Silence is a privileged place where history unfolds (by watching silent moments, we see history unfolding itself), and it is at the same time
5 This problematic axis is especially intriguing if we remember that Tolstoy had tremenduous influence on Pasternak's writings. According to Marc Slonim's reading of Doctor Zhivago in the New York Times Book Review, Tolstoy played enormous role in "the ethical formation of Pasternak, particularly in his developing attitude toward history and nature"
(Boris Pasternak).
the place of Pasternak's poignant and profound commentary of historical events. They are mutually constitutive: revolution, and (post)revolutionary Russia, and silence is its signifier. In that analytical framework Dmitry Bykov's description of a novel as a "symbolist novel, written after symbolism" [Bykov, 2010, p. 721] proves its relevance. Pasternak's exclusion of concrete historical data and their analysis was conscious ethical and aesthetic act. Description of Zhivago's passing through the city, after the revolutionary storm changed the landscape forever, vividly speaks about absolute social, cultural and political void it left - in that landscape silence is, indeed, authentic form of expression: "At about 10 P.M. one evening in late October (Old Style) Yurii Andreievich went without any particular necessity to call on one of his colleagues. The streets he passed were deserted. (...) He had turned down so many side streets that he had almost lost count of them when the snow thickened and the wind turned into a blizzard, the kind of blizzard that whistles in a field covering it with a blanket of snow, but which in town tosses about as if it had lost its way. There was something in common between the disturbances in the moral and in the physical world, near and far on the ground and in the air. Here and there resounded the last salvoes of islands of resistance. Bubbles of dying fires rose and broke on the horizon" [Pasternak, 1958, p. 304-305].
Doctor Zhivago foregrounds the idea that what follows after revolutions and wars is a wasteland, that gains voice and enters into language (and in doing so - remains authentic, and not false and contaminated) solely and exclusively through silence. In those circumstances perhaps silence is, indeed, endemic to authenticity6.
In Pasternak's novel silence is, similarly as in Rimbaud's poetry, the place of its unfolding and its sovereign logics. Moreover, since the novel begins and ends in silence in very concrete way, it could even be claimed that his novel originates in that void - novel posits silence as ground of its being. Let us remember that the novel opens during a funeral liturgy,panikhida, for Yuri's mother, when - despite expectations - he again choses silence:
The coffin was closed, nailed, and lowered into the ground. Clods of earth rained on the lid as the grave was hurriedly filled by four spades. A little mound formed. A ten-year-old boy climbed on it. Only the state of stupor and insensibility which is gradually induced by all big funerals could have created the impression that he intended to speak over his mother' s grave. (...) His snub-nosed face became contorted and he stretched out his neck. If a wolf cub had done this, everyone would have thought that it was about to howl [p. 8-9].
The novel has closed, circular structure: it ends in the same place (death / silence) it began (death / silence). The silence therefore symbolizes emptiness of history, but plenti-tude of creativity. To that end, the novel interestingly reverberates Kierkegaard's request:
6 Pasternak's quest for authenticity was one of the imperatives of his prose and poetry writings. As Andrey Sinyavsky pointed out, "authenticity - the truth of image - is for Pasternak the highest criterion of art. In his views on literature and his practice as a poet he is filled with the concern 'not to distort the voice of life that speaks in us'" [Sinyavsky, 1969, p. 171]. The very fact that authentic voice in Doctor Zhivago he identified with silence, makes this choice even more intriguing.
"The present state of the world and the whole of life is diseased. If I were a doctor and were asked for my advice, I would reply: Create silence! The Word of God cannot be heard in the noisy world of today. And even if it were blazoned forth with all the panoply of noise so that it could be heard in the midst of all the other noise, then it would no longer be the Word of God. Therefore create Silence" (S. Kierkegaard, cf. in Picard, 1948, p. 251). Pasternak's Zhivago could be the doctor Kierkegaard was craving for - after all, the imaginary world of a novel not only grows from Yuri Zhivago's silence, but it gives voice to a whole Thaw generation, so called "Zhivago's children" [Zubok, 2009].
At the end, I would like to add that while word is finite (it is fixed and definitive), silence is infinite (it is limitless and endless, cosmic as Lara). Different scholars noticed centrifugal quality of Pasternak's poetry (finally, he entered literary circles within literary group "The Centrifuge"). One of its distinctive features is the fact that centrifugal poetical imaginary creates the sense of openness towards (new) possible beginnings. This analysis enables us to conclude that - if a new beginning exists - than the silence cuts its way through.
Bibliograficheskij spisok
1. Anechoic Chamber. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber (accessed August 14th, 2019).
2. Birnbaum, H. Further Reflections on the Poetics of Doctor Zhivago: Structure, Technique, and Symbolism // Fleishman, L. (ed.) Boris Pasternak and His Times. 1989. Berkeley Slavic Specialties. P. 284-314.
3. Blok, A.A. Dvenadtsat' - Twelve. 1918. Transl. by Maria Carlson. URL: http://russiasgreatwar. org/docs/twelve_notes.pdf (accessed August 11th, 2019).
4. Blok, A.A. Intelligentsia i revolutsia [The Intelligentsia and the Revolution] // Blok, A. A. Stik-hotvorenia i poemy [Songs and Poems]. Moskva: Eksmo, 2007. P. 508-518.
5. Boris Pasternak. URL: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/boris-pasternak (accessed August, 14th, 2019).
6. Bykov, D. Boris Pasternak. Moskva: Molodaia gvardia, 2010. 896 p.
7. Cage, J. Silence. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: The M.I.T. Press, 1969. 288 p.
8. De Mallac, G. Boris Pasternak: His Life and Art. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981. 449 p.
9. Foucault, M. Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison. Transl. by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, 1995. 333 p.
10. Gasparov, B. Vremennoi kontrapunkt kak formoobrazuiushchi princip romana Pasternaka "Doktor Zhivago" [A Time Counterpoint as Structural Element in Pasternak's „Doctor Zhivago"] // Fleishman, L. (ed.) Boris Pasternak and His Times. 1989. Berkeley Slavic Specialties. P. 315-358.
11. Han, A. Tvorchestvo Borisa Pasternaka v kontekste esteticheskoj i filosofskoi mysli XX veka. [Boris Pasternak's Writings in the context of aesthetic and philosophical thought of 20th century] 2015. Szeged: Diss. Slav.: Lit. XXV. P. 273-298.
12. Hassan, I. Metaphors of Silence // The Virginia Quarterly Review. 1970. Vol. 46, no. 1. P. 81-95.
13. Hughes, R.P. Nabokov Reading Pasternak // Fleishman, L. (ed.) Boris Pasternak and His Times. 1989. Berkeley Slavic Specialties. P. 153-170.
14. Junggren, A. O poeticheskom genezise „Doktora Zhivago" [On Poetical genesis of "Doctor Zhivago"] // Nilsson, N.A. (ed.) Studies in 20th Century Russian Prose. 1982. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. P. 228-245.
16.
17.
18. 19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Le Breton, D. Sensing the World. An Anthropology of the Senses. Transl. by Carmen Ruschien-sky. London et al.: Bloomsbury. 2017. 328 p.
Lotman, Y. M. The Structure of the Artistic Text. Transl. by Ronald Vroon. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1977. 300 p.
Mayakovski, V. V. Nash marsh - Our March. Transl. from The Heritage of Russian Verse, ed. by
Dmitrii Obolensky. 1965. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. P. 372-373.
Metzer, D. Modern Silence. // The Journal of Musicology. 2006. Vol. 23, No. 3. P. 331-374.
iНе можете найти то, что вам нужно? Попробуйте сервис подбора литературы.
Morton, E. How Long Could You Endure the World's Quitest Place? 2013. URL: http://www. slate.
com/blogs/atlas_obscura/2014/05/05/orfield_laboratories_in_minneapolis_is_the_world_s_qui-
etest_place.html?via=gdpr-consent (accessed April 12th, 2019).
Pasternak, B. Doctor Zhivago. Transl. by M. Hayward and M. Harari; The Poems of Yuri Zhivago. Transl. by B. G. Guerney. Twenty-first printing. 1958. New York: Pantheon Books. 909 p. Picard, M. The World of Silence - Die Welt des Schweigens. 1948. URL: https://herbertbaioco. files.wordpress.com/2017/02/the-world-of-silence-max-picard.pdf (accessed April 12th, 2019). Sinyavsky, A. Boris Pasternak. // Davie, D.; Livingstone, A. (eds.) Pasternak. Modern Judgements. 1969. Macmillan Education. P. 154-219.
Sontag, S. The Aesthetics of Silence // Aspen. 1967. No. 5 + 6, item 3. URL: http://www.ubu. com/aspen/aspen5and6/threeEssays.html#sontag (accessed April 12th, 2019). Smirnov, I. Roman tain Doktor Zhivago. [The novel of secrets Doctor Zhivago] Moskva: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie. 1996. 208 p.
Spivak, G. C. Can the Subaltern Speak? // Williams, P.; Chrisman, L. (eds.) Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory. 1994. New York: Columbia University Press. P. 66-111. Steiner, G. Language and Silence. Essays on Language, Literature and the Inhuman. New York: Atheneum. 1986. 440 p.
Uzarevic, J. Zhenskoe nachalo v lirike Borisa Pasternaka. [Female principle in Boris Pasternak's poetry] // Fleishman, L. (ed.) Eternity's Hostage. Selected Papers from the Stanford International Conference on Boris Pasternak, May, 2004. Part 1. 2006. Stanford: Stanford Slavic Studies. P. 174-192.
Zubok, V. Zhivago's Children. The Last Russian Intelligentsia. Harvard University Press, 2009. 464 p.
About the author
Danijela Lugaric Vukas - PhD in Literary Theory and History, Assistant Professor, Department of East-Slavic Languages and Literature, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences (Zagreb, Croatia); e-mail: [email protected]
DOI: https://doi.org/10.25146/2587-7844-2019-8-4-29
УДК 82.09
Звуки тишины в романе б. пастернака «доктор живаго»
Д.Л. Вукас (Загреб, Хорватия)
Аннотация
Влияние классической музыки и композиторов, таких как Скрябин, хорошо видно в синтаксисе и звучании поэтического языка Пастернака. Его «композиторское ухо» (ср. De Mallac, 1981), т.е. его глубокое чувство ритма, гармонии, звука и тишины, повлияло на литературный язык в его знаменитом романе «Доктор Живаго», который является одним из величайших романов о падении имперской России и о конце монархии в результате войны и революции. Настоящая статья является попыткой анализа некоторых аспектов взаимосвязи между искусством, насилием и революцией, т.е. между воображаемым миром революционной и послереволюционной (советской) России в «Докторе Живаго», и тем, как роман изображает эти события через звуки толпы и города в смятении, но еще более важно - через интенсивные, длинные периоды молчания. Исходя из того что звуки и тишина не только физические состояния, но и эстетические и культурные приемы, целью этой работы является попытка ответить на следующие вопросы: в чем значение антитезы звука и тишины как метафоры «двойного» значения? Где молчание одновременно указывает на насилие, войну и революцию и содержит в себе энергию творения, креативный импульс? В статье анализируется символика молчания в романе Пастернака, особенно в отношении «парадоксальной материальности» [Miller, 2007] тишины, где это состояние полной бессловесности и неподвижности представляет одновременно пустоту и изобилие, невесомость и тяжесть. Глубокое использование Пастернаком молчания означает перенесение главных героев «Доктора Живаго» из мира насильственной революционной России в их собственные, частные, интимные миры самоанализа, или это скорее показатель их сопротивления общепринятому представлению революции как универсального политического и культурного проекта эмансипации и свободы для всех? Следует ли «риторику молчания» в этом романе рассматривать как состояние могущества и сознания (С. Сонтаг), т.е. как образ радикальной речи якобы молчаливых героев, а не как следствие их (буржуазной) беспечности и пассивности?
Ключевые слова: Борис Пастернак, творческая биография, Доктор Живаго, речь, тишина, молчание как метафора, модерн, история, война, революция.
Библиографический список
1. Блок А.А. Интеллигенция и революция // Блок А.А. Стихотворения и поэмы. М.: Эксмо, 2007. С. 508-518.
2. Быков Д. Борис Пастернак. М.: Молодая гвардия, 2010.
3. Гаспаров Б. Временной контрапункт как формообразующий принцип романа Пастернака «Доктор Живаго» // Fleishman L. (ред.) Boris Pasternak and His Times. Berkeley Slavic Specialties. 1989. С. 315-358.
4. Смирнов И. Роман тайн Доктор Живаго. М.: Новое литературное обозрение, 1996.
5. Ужаревич Й. Женское начало в лирике Бориса Пастернака // Fleishman L. (ред.) Eternity's Hostage. Selected Papers from the Stanford International Conference on Boris Pasternak. May. 2004. P. 1. Stanford: Stanford Slavic Studies, 2006. С. 174-192.
7.
8. 9.
10. 11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. 21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Хан А. Творчество Бориса Пастернака в контексте эстетической и философской мысли XX века. Szeged: Diss. Slav.: Lit. 2015. XXV. С. 273-298.
Юнггрен А. О поэтическом генезисе «Доктора Живаго» // Nilsson N.Â. (ред.) Studies in 20th Century Russian Prose. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1982. С. 228-245. Chamber A. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber (дата обращения: 14.08.2019). Birnbaum H. Further Reflections on the Poetics of Doctor Zhivago: Structure, Technique, and Symbolism // Fleishman L. (ed.) Boris Pasternak and His Times. Berkeley Slavic Specialties. 1989. P. 284-314.
Blok A.A. Dvenadtsat' - Twelve. Transl. by Maria Carlson. 1918. URL: http://russiasgreatwar. org/docs/twelve_notes.pdf (дата обращения: 11.08.2019).
Pasternak Boris. URL: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/boris-pasternak (дата обращения: 14.08.2019).
Cage J. Silence. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: The M.I.T. Press, 1969. De Mallac G. Boris Pasternak: His Life and Art. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981. Foucault M. Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison. Transl. by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, 1995.
Hassan I. Metaphors of Silence // The Virginia Quarterly Review. 1970. Vol. 46, No. 1 (Winter). P. 81-95.
Hughes R.P. Nabokov Reading Pasternak // Fleishman L. (ed.) Boris Pasternak and His Times. Berkeley Slavic Specialties. 1989. P. 153-170.
Le Breton D. Sensing the World. An Anthropology of the Senses. Transl. by Carmen Ruschien-sky. London et al.: Bloomsbury, 2017.
Lotman Y.M. The Structure of the Artistic Text. Transl. by Ronald Vroon. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977.
Mayakovski V.V. Nash marsh - Our March. Transl. from The Heritage of Russian Verse, ed. by Dmitrii Obolensky. 1965. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1918. P. 372-373. Metzer D. Modern Silence // The Journal of Musicology. Vol. 23, № 3 (Summer). P. 331-374. Morton E. (2014). How Long Could You Endure the World's Quitest Place? URL: http:// www.slate.com/blogs/atlas_obscura/2014/05/05/orfield_laboratories_in_minneapolis_is_the_ world_s_quietest_place.html?via=gdpr-consent (дата обращения 12.04.2019). Pasternak B. Doctor Zhivago. Transl. by M. Hayward and M. Harari; The Poems of Yuri Zhivago. Transl. by B. G. Guerney. Twenty-first printing. New York: Pantheon Books, 1958. Picard M. (1948). The World of Silence - Die Welt des Schweigens. URL: https://herbert-baioco.files.wordpress.com/2017/02/the-world-of-silence-max-picard.pdf (дата обращения 12.04.2019).
Sinyavsky A. Boris Pasternak // Davie D., Livingstone A. (eds.) Pasternak. Modern Judgements. Macmillan Education. 1969. P. 154-219.
Sontag S. The Aesthetics of Silence // Aspen. 1967. No. 5 + 6, item 3. URL: http://www.ubu.
com/aspen/aspen5and6/threeEssays.html#sontag (дата обращения: 12.04.2019).
Spivak G.C. Can the Subaltern Speak? // Williams, P.; Chrisman, L. (eds.) Colonial Discourse
and Post-Colonial Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. P. 66-111.
Steiner G. Language and Silence. Essays on Language, Literature and the Inhuman. New York:
Atheneum, 1986.
Zubok V. Zhivago's Children. The Last Russian Intelligentsia. Harvard University Press. 2009.
Сведения об авторе
Даниэла Лугарич Вукас - доктор филологических наук, доцент, кафедра восточнославянских языков и литератур, философский факультет, Загребский университет (Хорватия); e-mail: [email protected]
223 media by topic ∙ page 1 of 3
Shankharipatti, Pakistan
The conch-workers' street (Shankharipatti) in old Dhaka, Bangladesh. العربية: سوق في دكا القديمة في بنغلاديش
Sikkimese Nepali women with jewellry i.e. jewelry
Photograph shows Nepalese women selling jewelry at bazaar, Gangtok, Sikkim. Label on slide page: "Gangtok: Nepali jewelry at Bazaar." Date from related slide: LC-KAN05-2974. Forms part of: Dr. Alice S. Kandell... More
Selling spices on leaves in Bazaar
Photograph shows spices at the bazaar, Gangtok, Sikkim. Forms part of: Dr. Alice S. Kandell Collection of Sikkim Photographs (Library of Congress). Also represented in LOT 14034-3, pg. no. 130 (color referenc... More
Eagle Pencil Co.'s (3093594238)
Persistent URL: digital.lib.muohio.edu/u?/tradecards,743 Subject (TGM): Artists' materials; Pencils; Flowers; Bazaars; Shoe stores; Keywords: Water colors Colored crayons
Syr Darya Oblast. Aulie-Ata. Bazaar Square WDL10902
Русский: Эта фотография входит в этнографическую часть "Туркестанского альбома" — всестороннего исследования Центральной Азии, предпринятого после того, как в 1860-х годах в регионе установилось господство Рос... More
Shornoe masterstvo. Prodazha siedel (serrachi)
Photograph shows three men in stalls selling saddles and bridles. The albumen silver print is a photographic printing process that was widely used in the 19th century. It involves coating paper support with a... More
Peddling. Grain Vendor WDL10749
Русский: Эта фотография входит в этнографическую часть "Туркестанского альбома" — всестороннего исследования Центральной Азии, предпринятого после того, как в 1860-х годах в регионе установилось господство Рос... More
Peddling. A Butcher's Stall WDL10734
Русский: Эта фотография входит в этнографическую часть "Туркестанского альбома" — всестороннего исследования Центральной Азии, предпринятого после того, как в 1860-х годах в регионе установилось господство Рос... More
Peddling. Selling Cast-iron Wares WDL10738
Русский: Эта фотография входит в этнографическую часть "Туркестанского альбома" — всестороннего исследования Центральной Азии, предпринятого после того, как в 1860-х годах в регионе установилось господство Рос... More